Immiscible Phases

• Earlier discussions have considered only a

single fluid in the pores
– porosity
– permeability
• Saturation: fraction of pore space
occupied by a particular fluid (immiscible
phases)
– Sw+So+Sg=1
• When more than a single phase is present,
the fluids interact with the rock, and with
each other
 DEFINITION OF INTERFACIAL
TENSION

• Interfacial (boundary) tension is the energy

per unit area (force per unit distance) at the
surface between phases

• Commonly expressed in milli-

Newtons/meter (also, dynes/cm)
 DEFINITION OF WETTABILITY
• Wettability is the tendency of one fluid
to spread on or adhere to a solid
surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.
• Wettability refers to interaction between
fluid and solid phases.

• Reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone,

dolomite, etc.) are the solid surfaces

• Oil, water, and/or gas are the fluids

 DEFINITION OF
ADHESION TENSION
• Adhesion tension is expressed as the
difference between two solid-fluid
interfacial tensions.
AT = σ os − σ ws = − σ ow cos θ
• A negative adhesion tension indicates that the denser phase (water)
preferentially wets the solid surface (and vice versa).
• An adhesion tension of “0” indicates that both phases have equal
affinity for the solid surface
 CONTACT ANGLE
Oil
σ ow

Oil θ Water Oil

σ os σ ws σ os
Solid The contact angle, θ , measured through
the denser liquid phase,
defines which fluid wets the solid
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm) surface.
θ = contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through the water, degrees

σos = interfacial energy between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

σws = interfacial energy between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

σ = interfacial energy (interfacial tension) between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
 OIL-WET RESERVOIR ROCK

• Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially

wets the rock surfaces.
• The rock is oil-wet under the following
conditions:
∀ σ os > σ ws
• AT > 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)
• 90° < θ < 180°
If θ is close to 180°, the rock is considered to
be “strongly oil-wet”
 OIL-WET ROCK

σ ow
Water
Oil
θ

σ os σ ws σ os Solid

• 90° < θ < 180°

• The adhesion tension between water and the
rock surface is less than that between oil and the
rock surface.
 WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ

θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER

OIL
GRAIN GRAIN

OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001
WATER-WET OIL-WET

Air Oil

θ
θ

WATER WATER
WETTABILITY CLASSIFICATION
• Strongly oil- or water-wetting

• Neutral wettability – no preferential wettability

to either water or oil in the pores

• Fractional wettability – reservoir that has local

areas that are strongly oil-wet, whereas most
of the reservoir is strongly water-wet
- Occurs where reservoir rock have variable
mineral composition and surface chemistry

• Mixed wettability – smaller pores area water-wet

are filled with water, whereas larger pores are
oil-wet and filled with oil
- Residual oil saturation is low
- Occurs where oil with polar organic compounds
invades a water-wet rock saturated with brine
 IMBIBITION
• Imbibition is a fluid flow process in which
the saturation of the wetting phase
increases and the nonwetting phase
saturation decreases. (e.g., waterflood of an
oil reservoir that is water-wet).

• Mobility of wetting phase increases as

wetting phase saturation increases
– mobility is the fraction of total flow capacity for a particular
phase
 WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ

θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER

OIL
GRAIN GRAIN

OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001