UNIIT-V

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Earthquake engineering deals with the study of earthquake effects on people and their built environment and device ways and means to reduce these effects. Inputs from seismology are required to understand ground motion characteristics and ground shaking hazards associated with the occurrence of moderate to large-sized earthquakes. Earthquakes usually strike without warning.

Earthquakes have been an integral component of the geological evolution of planet Earth. First attempt to study and document earthquake effects dates back to 1755 after the occurrence of Lisbon Earthquake in Portugal. Scientific earthquake research is mainly a product of 20th century.

RESEARCH ACTIVITY CENTERS ON SEVERAL DIVERSIFIED TOPICS

Earthquake mechanics. Earthquake prediction and control. The prompt detection of tsunamis (seismic sea waves). Earthquake resistant construction. Seismic building code improvements.

Land use zoning. Earthquake risk and hazard perception. Disaster preparedness. Study of concern and fears of people who have experienced the effect of an earthquake. Data from above investigations help to form an integrated picture of most complex field of study that is termed as Urban seismology.

a) b) c)

Seismology: The science of earthquakes and related phenomena. Seismology: The science of earthquakes plus the physics of earths interior (essentially with regard to seismic wave propagation and the knowledge it provides regarding the internal structure of earth). Engineering Seismology: The science of elastic waves or seismic waves: Their origin (earthquake, explosion etc.), Their propagation through the earths interior, Their recording including the interpretation of the records.

OTHERS BRANCHES OF SEISMOLOGY

Applied seismology Seismic prospecting Engineering seismology Strong ground motion seismology

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE

Earthquakes are capable of producing a number of direct and induced effects. Direct effects: Fault displacements, tectonic uplift and ground shaking are direct effects. Induced effects: Various types of ground failure, tsunamis and fire represent principal induced effects. Most large earthquakes generate multiple hazards, and their impact is most pronounced when they strike urban environments.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is produced when the elastic strain energy stored in the rocks is suddenly released. A rock sample under slow varying stresses would experience a change in shape and size or deform. Under slow varying stresses the rocks behave in an elastic manner (Theory of elasticity is applied to study their behavior). When the rocks deform, the strain energy is stored in them like it is stored in a compressed spring.

DEFORMARION OF EARTH CRUST

Microcracks are formed parallel to the axis of maximum compression when brittle rocks are subjected to triaxial compression. This happens when applied stress reaches one third to two third the fracture stress at a given confining pressure. Following factors participate in the deformation of earth crust /lithosphere: Time over which the stresses are applied, Rate at which the stresses are applied Compressive and tensile strength of rocks. Temperature, confining pressure and presence of liquids at crustal depths.

Brittle Deformation: When the applied stresses exceed the compressive or tensile strength of rocks, the rocks fail by rupturing. This is also called brittle deformation. This sudden failure will produce a fracture surface and stored elastic strain energy in the rocks is suddenly released producing an earthquake

TERMINOLOGY

EARTHQUAKE: An earthquake is a sudden transient motion or series of motions of the ground originating in a limited region and spreading from there in all directions. This motion occurs on account of sudden release of elastic strain energy stored along active geological features. MACROSEISMIC EFFECTS: Effects of earthquake that can be observed on the large scale in the field without the aid of instruments. INTENSITY: It refers to the degree of shaking at a specified locality. It is rating assigned to a locality using a descriptive scale, with grades indicated by Roman numerals from I to XII.

TELESEISM: An earthquake recorded by a seismograph at a great distance is termed teleseism. By international convention this distance is more than 2000 kilometers from the epicenter.
MAGNITUDE: It is a measure of the size of an earthquake. It is a rating independent of the place of observation. Normally It is calculated from measurement of amplitude of seismic waves observed on the seismograms. MICROSEISMIC EFFECTS: These are small scale effects observable with the help of instruments.

ISOSEISMALS: Curves connecting localities where equal intensity is observed in an earthquake. They are now more commonly mapped as boundaries between regions of successive intensity ratings. MEIZOSEISMAL AREA: The area within the isoseismal of highest intensity is called the meizoseismal area.

HYPOCENTER OR FOCUS: The point of origin of elastic disturbance constituting an earthquake. This point seems to represent the position of the initial rupture. EPICENTER: The point on the surface of the earth vertically above hypocenter is called an epicenter.
EPICENTRAL DISTANCE (): It is the distance from recording station to the epicenter . It is expressed in terms of angle subtended at the center of the earth between the two radii joining the epicenter and station. HYPOCENTRAL DISTANCE: The distance (d+) from hypocenter to the recording station is called hypocentral distance.

ORIGIN TIME: The onset time of an earthquake at the hypocenter. TRANSIT OR TRAVEL TIME: The time between the origin time and the arrival time of a given seismic wave at a specified point (usually at a seismograph station).

SEISMOGRAPH: An instrument that writes a permanent continuous record of the earths motion following an earthquake. SEISMOGRAM: The time-wise record of the ground motion written by a seismograph.
ACCELEROGRAPH: An instrument that records the ground motion in terms of acceleration in the epicentral region of strong shaking. It produces the time wise record of ground acceleration at a specific locality.

ACCELEROGRAM: The ground motion record produced by an accelerograph.

MICROEARTHQUAKES: Very small earthquakes with magnitude less than three on Richter scale are called Microearthquakes.

High gain high frequency ultra- sensitive seismographs are used to monitor these for seismological and engineering applications.

LITHOSPHERE: The outer rigid shell of the earth, situated above the asthenosphere and containing, the crust, continents and plates. ASTHENOSPHERE: The world wide layer below the lithosphere which is marked by low seismic velocities and high seismic attenuation. It is a soft layer, probably molten. It may be site of convection. PLATE: One of the dozen or more segments of the lithosphere that are internally rigid and move independently over the interior . The plates meet at convergent boundaries and separate at divergent boundaries. PLATE TECTONICS: Theory and study of plate formation, movement and destruction: the attempt to explain seismicity, volcanism, mountain-building and palemagnetic evidence in terms of plate motion.

SEISMIC WAVES

The strain energy released from an earthquake source propagates in the form of elastic waves also called seismic waves. These waves are recorded by the seismographs placed on the surface of the earth. The seismic waves propagate through the whole of the earth interior, or along its surface layers.

Seismogram of an earthquake in EL Salvador as recorded near New York City. P, S, SS, LR and LQ indicate the first arrival of different kinds of seismic waves

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

The seismic waves are of two main types: Body waves Surface waves. The body waves propagate through the interior or body of the earth. These are of two types: i) Longitudinal waves or P-waves ii) Transverse or S-waves. The surface waves propagate along the surface of the earth. These are also of two main types i) Love waves (LQ) ii) Rayleigh (LR) waves.

The total sequence of seismic waves is termed the wave train. The beginning of each new burst of energy is called a phase. The amplitude is one half the trace height. The time between the first wave arrival and the drop off to background noise is called earthquake duration or coda length.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES OR P-WAVES

Possess longitudinal motion similar to sound waves. Propagate through all material types (solid, liquids and gases). First to arrive at a recording station (called primary waves). Create a push and pull effect in materials through which they propagate. Can be perceived, if the earthquake is large enough, as a sudden shaking emanating from below the surface.

TRANSVERSE WAVES OR S-WAVES

These are similar to electromagnetic waves. Vertical (SV) and horizontal (SH) components at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. Propagate only through solid substances because gases can not be sheared. Shear and twist crustal material. Often more damaging to the works of construction than the P-waves.

P WAVES AND S WAVES

SURFACE WAVES

Generally having 10-20 sec wave periods, 20-80 km wavelengths and 3 km/ sec velocities. Love waves contain substantial energy but their long periods have smoothening effect on the imparted ground motion. This greatly reducing their damage potential. Wave amplitudes are largest at the surface and decrease with depth. The largest amplitudes are associated with shallow focus earthquakes.

LOVE WAVES

Love waves result from the interaction of SH-waves with the earths surface layer. They are similar to SH waves. Ground motion is in the horizontal plane, and particles vibrate at right angle to the direction of wave propagation. These waves cannot pass through water bodies. Usually faster than Rayleigh waves.

RAYLEIGH WAVES

These waves introduce a retrograde elliptical motion similar to ocean waves.

LOVE WAVES AND RAYLEIGH WAVES

PLATE TECTONICS
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the lithosphere is broken into a number of moderately rigid plates. The plates slide over a partially molten plastic asthenosphere. According to the relative motions of adjacent plates we can define three kinds of plate boundaries: (i ) Divergent Plate Boundaries or Spreading Centers: Typically Mid-Ocean Ridges. (ii ) Convergent Plate Boundaries: Typically Subduction Zones. (iii) Transform plate boundaries: Typically SA Fault.

Along divergent plate boundaries plates separate. In the process of plate separation, partially molten mantle material upwells along linear ocean ridges and new lithosphere is created along the trailing edges of the diverging plates. Along convergent plate boundaries the leading edge of one plate overrides another plate. The overridden plate is subducted into the mantle where lithosphere is resorbed. This subduction process produces deep-sea trenches, shallow intermediate and deep focus earthquakes, adjacent mountain ranges, and both basaltic and andesitic volcanism. Along transform plate boundaries plates slide past each other, with neither creation nor destruction of lithosphere. Occasionally marked by scarps, transform plate boundaries are characterized by shallow focus earthquakes with horizontal slips.

Map of major and some minor tectonic plates. Arrows indicate the relative

direction of motion of tectonic plates (after Bolt, 1978 ).

Selected global earthquake locations from 1977 to 1994 showing that earthquakes occur along well defined belts of seismicity

Map showing plate boundaries that are delineated based on the earthquake locations given in previous slide

FROM THE STUDY OF GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES FOLLOWING IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS CAN BE DRAWN:

(1) Earthquakes are global but their present geographical distribution is structured and follows defined patterns. There are extensive aseismic regions and belts of high seismicity. (2) Earthquakes occur in continents as well as in oceans, and cluster strongly in both space and time.

(3) The earthquakes occur up to 700 km depth.

(4) Major and great earthquakes (where field observations are possible) are usually accompanied by ground deformation, fault rupture, subsidence and surface uplift. (5) Tsunamis are large sea waves and are caused by large submarine earthquakes.

EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY AND INTENSITY SCALES

I

Earthquake

Intensity represents macroseismic effects of an earthquake on humans and their products and features on the earth surface at some locality.
Intensity

is determined by observations of the macroseismicity effects of earthquakes in the field.

Intensity

is a measure of the severity of an earthquake.

FACTORS EFFECTING EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY

Magnitude of the earthquake Distance from the Epicenter Focal depth of the earthquake Geologic and soil conditions of the locality Type of construction ( age and workmanship) Expertise of the observer

ISOSEISMAL MAPS

A map is constructed to show the variation of intensity with distance from epicenter for a particular earthquake. The procedure is to plot the intensity values at their respective localities on a base map. The lines connecting localities having equal value of intensity are called isoseismals. The map is termed the isoseismal map.

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE

C. F. Richter introduced the magnitude scale in 1930s, while issuing the listing of earthquakes in Southern California.

Richter started with two assumptions:

Two earthquakes having the same hypocenter and recorded at the same station, the larger earthquake will have larger amplitude. If the hypocenters differ, the smaller earthquake may occur closer to a given station and have larger amplitude. If similar Seismographs placed at varying distances are used to record these two earthquakes; and a plot between maximum ground motion (Y-axis) and epicentral distances (X-axis) is made, we should get two curves for two earthquakes. The higher curve represents the larger earthquake.

EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION

The ground motion due to seismic waves can be divided into two general levels: Small amplitude motion from distant or small earthquakes. Large amplitude motion due to nearby or large earthquakes. Ground motion at a particular site is influenced by three main factors: Characteristics of source of seismic waves Path through which the seismic waves travel Local geological structure below the recording site

The estimation of large amplitude ground motion, called the strong ground motion, is of interest to engineers and those concerned with mitigating the effects of earthquakes on society. Strong motion accelerographs, used to record strong ground motion, provide records of acceleration time history. The peak of the maximum acceleration, normally expressed in terms of acceleration due to gravity, is measured in three orthogonal directions from these records. These records are uncorrected and needs some processing for the purpose of removing ambient noise and instrument response.

SEISMIC ZONING MAP

A seismic zoning map specifies the level of forces or motions for earthquake resistant design. Such a map differs from seismicity map that provides information about the occurrence of earthquakes. To apply building codes in regions having differing seismicity and earthquake potential, it is necessary to prepare seismic zoning map indicating areas of probable maximum earthquake ground motion in terms of peak acceleration or peak velocities or any other measure of strong shaking.

SEISMIC ZONING MAP OF INDIA

In order to evaluate strong ground motion characteristics and basic seismic coefficients in different parts of the country for earthquake resistant design of ordinary structures the first Indian standard seismic zoning map was published in 1962 (IS:1893-1962). This map was prepared based on available earthquake intensity data and locations of moderate, large and great earthquakes.

The correlation between probable maximum magnitude and corresponding MM intensities in each of the seismic zones of 1970 IS map are as follows: Seismic zone I II III IV V Probable maximum <5 5-6 6-6.5 6.5-7 >7 magnitude Likely maximum <VI VI VII VIII IX MM intensity & above Basic horizontal (o) Seismic coefficient 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.08 Seismic zone factor 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.40

SEISMIC ZONING MAP OF INDIA (IS:1893-(PART I) 2002: GENERAL PROVISIONS AND BUILDINGS)

The seismic zoning map (Fig.10) is the latest Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant design of Structures (IS:1893-(Part I) 2002: General Provisions and Buildings) that has been revised recently and indicates four seismic zones. In this map the zones I and II of earlier zoning map have been merged together. The zone factor, Z for these zones is given below:
Seismic Zone Seismic Intensity Z II Low 0.10 III Moderate 0.16 IV Severe 0.24 V Very Severe 0.36

From above seismic zoning maps the design seismic forces are computed on the basis of importance of the structure and its soil foundation system.