Chapter 1

ECG203 BASIC SOIL MECHANICS
CHAPTER 1: Physical Properties and Classification of Soil
Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to understand:
Soil origin, soil minerals, engineering soil
terminology, geological soil classification Soil phase diagram, mass volume relationship, specific gravity
INTRODUCTION
To design a foundation that will support a structure, an engineer
must understand the types of soils deposits that will support the foundation Engineers must remember that soil at any site frequently is nonhomogenous; that is the soil profile may vary Soil mechanics theories involve idealized conditions, so the application of the theories to foundation engineering problems involves a judicious evaluation of site conditions and soil parameters To do this requires some knowledge of the geological process by which the soil deposit at the site was formed by subsurface exploration Good professional judgment constitutes an essential part of geotechnical engineering and it comes only with practice
1.1.1: Soil Origin

Geologist described soil as those layers of
loose unconsolidated material extending from the surface to solid rock. Soil have been formed by weathering and disintegration of the rocks. In engineering context, soil means material that can be worked without drilling or blasting.
Soils originate from solid rocks such as igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary.

The process of soil formation are controlling by these
factors:

Nature and composition of the parent rock. Climatic conditions (eg: temperature and humidity) Topographic and general terrain conditions (eg: exposure, density, type of vegetation) Length of time related to particular prevailing conditions. Interference by other agencies (eg: earthquake). Mode and conditions of transport.
Magma cools and crystallizes to form igneous rock. Igneous rock undergoes weathering (or breakdown) to form
sediment. The sediment is transported and deposited somewhere (such as at the beach or in a delta, or in the deep sea). The deposited sediment undergoes lithification (the processes that turn it into a rock). These include cementation and compaction. As the sedimentary rock is buried under more and more sediment, the heat and pressure of burial cause metamorphism to occur. This transforms the sedimentary rock into a metamorphic rock. As the metamorphic rock is buried more deeply (or as it is squeezed by plate tectonic pressures), temperatures and pressures continue to rise. If the temperature becomes hot enough, the metamorphic rock undergoes melting. The molten rock is called magma. This completes the cycle.
Igneous rock
- formed by solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within the earth mantle - extrusive where magma is extruded onto the earths surface to create volcano - intrusive when magma solidifies below the surface of the earth. May later be exposed at the surface when the cover rocks are eroded away - e.g. granite, basalt
Sedimentary rock
- the deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by weathering may become compacted by overburden pressure and cemented agents like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite and quartz - can also be formed by chemical processes - e.g. sandstone, clay
Metamorphic rock
- process of changing the composition and texture of rocks, without melting by heat and pressure - type depends on the original rock material that was metamorphosed and the temperature and pressure conditions which were imposed - e.g. schist, hornfels
Natural soil deposits
Effects of weathering - process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into smaller pieces - most of the soil that cover the earth formed by weathering of various rocks. - there are 2 general types of weathering (1) mechanical weathering by physical forces including running water, wind, ocean waves, glacier ice, frost and expansion and contraction by the gain and loss of heat (2) chemical weathering chemical decomposition of the original rock. The original material may be changed to something entirely different. e.g. the chemical weathering of feldspar can produce clay minerals - In hot climates, weathering may remove some minerals, leaving others of a more resistant nature in a concentrated deposit (eg laterite, bauxite)
Effects of transport
- soil produced by weathering of rocks can be transported by physical processes to other places - the resulting soil deposits are called transported soils. In contrast, some soils stay where they were formed and cover the rock surface from which they derive; and this are called residual soils - a fine wind blown dust may be carried considerable distances before being deposited. - the action of flowing water may dissolve some minerals, carry some articles in suspension and bounce or roll others along.
- Transported soils may be classified into several
groups depending on their mode of transportation and deposition: Glacial soils-formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers Alluvial soils-transported by running water and deposited along streams Lacustrine soils-form by deposition in quiet lakes Marine soils-formed by deposition in the seas Aeolian soils-transported and deposited by wind Colluvial soils-formed by movement of soil form its original place by gravity, such as during landslides
1.1.2: Mineral composition of soil
Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic mineral particles, water and air. Therefore it is convenient to think of soil model which has three phases: solid, liquid and gas
gas Air Water vappour
liquid
Water Dissolved salts
solid
Rock fragments Mineral grains Organic matter
Three phase soil model
Rock fragments
identifiable pieces of the parent rock
containing several minerals. Rock fragments usually > 2mm (sand to gravel) Soundness of the soil will depend on the extend of differential mineral decomposition within individual fragments. For example, the presence of kaolinised granite fragments could influence the shear strength of soil.
Mineral grains
Separate particles of each particular mineral and
range in size from gravel to clay (> 2mm to 1m) Mostly soil will consist almost entirely of one minerals but some soils will contain mixtures of different minerals. Soil could be divided into 2 major groups; coarse and fine. Coarse soil classified as particles size > 0.06mm such as sands and gravels. Fine soil are finer than 0.06 mm such as clay and silt.
Organic matter
Origin from plant or animal remains (called as
humus). Also featured as top soil, occur in the upper layer not more than 0.5 m thickness. Peat deposits are predominantly fibrous organic material. In engineering, organic matter has undesirable properties (e.g: highly compressible, absorb large quantities of water and low shear strength and thus low bearing capacity)
Water
Fundamental part of natural soil and in fact has a
greater effect on engineering properties than any constituent Water has no shear strength, it is incompressible, therefore transmit direct pressure. So that, the drainage conditions in soil mass are of greatly significance when considering its shear strength Water can dissolve in solution a wide range of salts and other compounds, some of it has undesirable effects. E.g. the presence of sulphate ions has a serious deleterious effect on one of the compounds in Portland cement and can therefore be harmful to concrete structures
Air
Soils may be considered in a practical sense
to be perfectly dry or fully saturated To be exact, the 2 extremes do not occur In a so-called dry soil there will be water vapor present, while fully-saturated soil may contain as much as 2% air voids Air is compressible and water vapor can freeze
Clay minerals
Mainly produced from feldspar
and micas. It form part of a group of complex alumino-silicates of potassium, magnesium and iron (layer-lattice). Tetrahedral unit Very small in size, very flaky in shape and have considerable surface area Two basic structural units; tetrahedral and octahedral unit. 4 main group of clay; - kaolinite: derived from weathering of feldspar. - illite: degradation of micas under marine condition. - montmorillonite: from further degradation of illite. - vermiculite: weathering products of biotite and chlorite.
Octahedral unit
1.1.3: Engineering Soil Terminology

a) Rock Hard rigid deposit forming part of the earths crust (eg: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock). b) Soil any loose or diggable material that is worked in, worked on and worked with. c) Organic Soil a mixture of mineral grains and organic material of mainly vegetable origin in varying stages of decomposition. d) Peat made up entirely of organic matter, very spongy, highly compressible, and combustible.
Residual soil the weathered remains of rocks that have undergone no transportation. Normally sandy or gravelly with high concentrations of oxides. f) Alluvium sands and gravels which have been deposited from rivers or streams. g) Cohesive soil fine soil containing sufficient clay or silt particles to impart significant plasticity and cohesion. h) Cohesionless soil coarse soils (sand and gravel) which do not exhibit plasticity or cohesion. i) Boulder clay - also called till. Soil of glacial origin consisting of a very wide range of particle sizes from finely ground rock flour to boulders. j) Drift geological term to describe superficial unconsolidated deposits of recent origin such as alluvium.
e)
1.2.1: Soil Phase Diagram

Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic mineral
particles (solid), water and air. Unit solid volume model is the most convenient.
air water solid Va Vw Vs = 1
Va = volume of air Vw = volume of water Vs = volume of solid = 1 (1m3 of solid material)
The model is constructed of 1m3 of solid material and
will remain constant. Volume of solid is fixed while volume of air and water can change. Volume of water and air = void space. Perfect dry soil no water is present and void space completely fill with air. Saturated soil no air is present and void space completely fill with water.
No water 1+e No air Water only solid c) Saturated soil Air only solid b) Completely dry soil
Voids (air + Water) solid a) Void ratio
1.2.2: Mass-Volume relationship

Total volume,
V = Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw + Va
Assuming the weight of air is negligible, total
mass,
M = Ms + Mw
Masses
air Mass of water, Mw = wGsw Mass of soil, Ms = Gsw water solid
Volumes
e Va = e (1-Sr) Vw = Sre = wGs Vs = 1 V=1+e (Specific volume)
Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one
w = density of water = 1000kg/m3 = 1.0Mg/m3
a)
Void ratio (e) The volume not occupied by solids known as voids volume. May occupied by water or air or both. e = volume of voids = Vv = e volume of solid Vs 1 (1)
b)
Porosity (n) To expressing the quantity of voids. n = volume of voids = Vv total volume V n= e 1+e Specific volume (V) The total volume of the soil model. V=1+e
(2)
c)
(3)
Degree of saturation (Sr) measure how saturated the soil is. Sr = volume of water = Vw volume of void e Vw = Sre (4) % of saturation = 100Sr w= moisture content *For perfectly dry soil, Sr = 0 Gs = specific gravity *For saturated soil, Sr = 1 d) e) Air void ratio (Av) ratio of air voids volume to specific volume. Av = volume of air = Va = e (1-Sr) total volume 1 + e 1+e but Sr = wGs/e Av = e (1-Sr) = e 1- (wGs/e) = e - wGs 1+e 1+e 1+e 1+e therefore, Av = e wGs (5) 1+e
f)
Specific gravity (Gs) Ratio of the mass of a given volume of a material to the mass of the same volume of water. Gs = mass of a given volume of a material mass of the same volume of water = Ms (6) Vsw Gs = 2.55 to 2.75 with average value = 2.65 Moisture content () Ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solid. w = mass of water = Mw = Vww mass of solid Ms Gsw but Vw = Sre = wGs Therefore, w = Sre Gs (7)
g)
h)
Dry density (d) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)
d = mass of solid = ms total volume V therefore, d = Gsw 1+e

i) Bulk density (b) (kg/m3, Mg/m3) b = total mass total volume = mass of solid + mass of water total volume = Gsw + Vww = Gsw + Srew 1+e 1+e therefore, b = Gs + Sre w 1+e
(8)
(9)
j)
Relation between dry density (d) and bulk density (b)

b d b d Gs + Sre 1+e Gs 1+e Gs + Sre Gs
=
w w = Gs + Sre 1 +e
x
1+e Gs
1 + Sre Gs
but Sre = wGs
b d
1 + wGs Gs
b = (1 + w) d
(10)
k) Saturated density (sat) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)
when soil become saturated, Sr = 1 and b becomes saturated (sat)

From equation (9), the saturated density becomes sat = Gs + e 1+e w (11)
l) Submerged density or effective density ( or sub) (kg/m3) = sub = sat w (12)

Note: b is bulk density above water table sat is saturated density or bulk density water table. = sub is submerged or effective density for calculation, use = sub when it is below water table.
b sat
Ground level Water table
above
b = sub = sat w
m) Unit weight () (kN/m3, N/cm3) Unit weight is a weight of soil per unit volume =W V = .g where g = 9.81 m/s * Formula is same for all condition
= force/unit volume (13)
Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
Describe and classify the soil based on:
mineral moisture content, void ratio. Soil consistency Atterberg Limits Classify the soil using BS and USCS
Introduction
Soil is generally classified into 3 phases Solid, Liquid & Gas Soil, Water & Air Solid particles & Voids Solid particles = Soil particles Voids = Water + Air
Field Identification
Particle size : by implementing visual examination and feel. Grading : either the soil is well graded/ poorly graded/uniform graded. Compactness : sometimes regarded as field strength and can be reported as loose/ dense/slightly cemented. Structure : either the soil is classified as homogenous/inter-stratified/intact/fissured.
Cohesion, Plasticity & Consistency : this method can be used for identifying soil particles by hand squeezing. Soil can be classified as either; very soft / soft / firm / very firm / hard / crumbly. Dilatancy : dilatancy will exhibits a glossy water film marking on the surface of the pat.
Dry strength : can be identified by breaking the soil. Weathering : can be classified into unweathered / slightly weathered / moderately weathered / highly weathered / fully weathered.
Types of Classification
BS 1377 (British Standards Institutions) BS 5930 (British Standards Institutions) ASTM (American Standard of Testing Materials) AASHTO (American Association State Highway & Transportation Official) MS (Malaysian Standards)
BS 5930 (British Standards Institutions)
BS 5930 (British Standards Institutions)
ASTM or Unified Soil Classification System
Classification of Coarse Soil

Particle Size Test Typical Grading Curve Grading Characteristics

Particle Size Test
The aim is to measure the distribution of particle size in the sample. When a wide range of sizes is present, the sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each sub-sample. Wet sieving is used to separate fine grains from coarse grains and is carried out by washing soil specimen on a 60 mm sieve mesh.

Particle Size Test
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles > 60 mm; samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a nest of sieves of descending mesh size. Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a suspension.

Particle Size Test
The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at time intervals. Sizes are determined from the settling velocity and times recorded and then percentages between sizes are determined from density differences.

Particle Size Test
The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing) against log size. A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is called a grading curve.

Particle Size Test
The position and shape of the grading curve determines the soil class; also, geometrical grading characteristics can be determined from the grading curve.

Typical Grading Curve

Typical Grading Curve
A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium) B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e.. equal amounts of gravel and sand) C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt) E - a typical silty CLAY

Grading Characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading characteristics.

First of all, three points are located on the grading curve :
D10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample D30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample D60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample


From these, the grading characteristics are then calculated :
Effective size = D10 Uniformity coefficient, Cu = D60 / D10 Coefficient of gradation, Cg = (D30) / (D60 x D10)

Both Cu and Cg will be 1 for a single sized soil
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil Cg = 0.5 - 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil Cg < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
Sieving Testing Procedure
Electric Sieve Shaker
Hand Operated Sieve Shaker
Small Aperture
Small Aperture
Perforated Plate Sieve (Square Hole)
Woven Wire Mesh Sieve
Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

20 mm
20 mm

Woven Mesh Sieve
Sieving Test Procedure

Weigh all the empty test sieves selected for the testing including the pan.
Sieve Size 50mm

Larger Aperture Size
Smaller Aperture Size
Sieve Size 63m
Pan

Weigh the mass of the soil which is going to be Used for the testing
Mass of soil = 2458 g

Size 37.5 mm Size 28 mm Size 20 mm Size 14 mm Size 10 mm Size 6.3 mm Size 5 mm Size 3.35 mm Pan
Sieve Arrangement
Preparing of the Test Sieve 1st Stage of sieving. tack the test sieve in a proper sequence. In this example, the lid or cover will be placed on the top of the sequence. It then followed by the test sieve of size 37.5 mm until the test sieve of size 3.35 mm with the pan at the bottom most order of the stack.

Set Up the Sieve Shaker Transfer the stacked test sieve to the sieve shaker. Do not attached the stabilizing bar yet.
Size 37.5 mm Size 28 mm Size 20 mm Size 14 mm Size 10 mm Size 6.3 mm Size 5 mm Size 3.35 mm Pan
Sieve Shaker Endecott EFL 2000

Transferring the Soil Remove the lid. Pour the soil to the top most of the stacked test sieve. Be extra careful when pouring the soil into the test sieves.
Size 37.5 mm Size 28 mm Size 20 mm Size 14 mm Size 10 mm
Size 6.3 mm
Size 5 mm Size 3.35 mm Pan

Get Ready to Shake Fasten the lid. Fasten and tighten the stabilizing bar on top of the stacked sieve. Set the dial knob to 10 minutes. Press On. The shaking starts.
Size 6.3 mm

Weighing the Retained Soil on the Test Sieves Remove the stabilizing bar on top of the stacked sieve. Remove the lid. Remove the stacked sieves from the sieve shaker. Prepare the test sieves for individual weighing with the retained soil.
Size 6.3 mm

No Soil Retained Size 37.5 mm Size 28 mm Size 20 mm Size 14 mm Size 10 mm Size 6.3 mm Size 5 mm Size 3.35 mm Pan
Weighing the Retained Soil on the Test Sieves
The mass of soil retained can be obtained by deducting the mass of the test sieve obtained during the initial stage of testing.

Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm Size 600 m Size 425 m Size 300 m Size 212 m
Sieve Arrangement
Size 150 m
Size 63 m Pan
Preparing of the Test Sieve 2nd Stage of sieving. Similar to the 1st Stage, stack the test sieve in a proper sequence. The lid or cover will be placed on the top of the sequence. The sequence is the test sieve size of size 2 mm on top and the test sieve of size 63 m with the pan will be at the bottom.

Example :
Total mass of soil used = 2458 g Stage 1
Sieve size (mm) 37.5 Mass of soil 0 Retained (g)

Pan Contents = 1165 g Stage 2 Sieve size 2 1.18 (mm or m) Mass of soil 54.3 38 Retained (g) Pan Contents = 3.1 g
28 55
20 14 100 154
10 6.3 205 305
5.0 199
3.35 275
Riffled sample to = 196 g
600 30
425 14.2
300 15.5
212 13.1
150 11.2
63 16.5

S.O.L.A.T Interface
S.O.L.A.T Print Out Layout

Pan
Soil Mass of 1165 g
Sieve size 2.0 mm

Maximum Soil Mass of 200 g
Sieve size 1.18 mm Maximum Soil Mass of 100 g
Riffling the Soil Sample The mass of the soil sample collected in the pan @ passing the 3.35 mm test sieve is 1165 g. These mass exceeds the mass that are allocated for the next stage of test sieve which is sieve size 2.0 mm (Refer Table). Riffling has to be conducted.

Soil Mass of 1165 g
Soil Mass of 500 +/- g This portion will be discard
Soil Mass of 500 +/- g This portion will be riffled again
Riffling the Soil Sample The riffle box has to compartments. When the soil mass is poured into the riffle box, it divides the mass into half @ 2 portions. In this case, the 1st riffling process will generate 2 portions of soil with each has a mass of 500 +/g.

Soil Mass of 500 +/- g
Soil Mass of 200 +/- g This portion will be discarded
Soil Mass of 196 g This portion will Be used for the 2nd stage of sieving
Riffling the Soil Sample The other half will be reriffled. Whilst the other half will be discarded. In the 2nd riffling process the amount collected in each of the portion will be 200 +/- g. So, the other half will again be discarded, whilst the 196 g will be used for the 2nd stage of sieving.

Size 2 mm
Size 1.18 mm Size 600 m Size 425 m Size 300 m Size 212 m
Sieve Arrangement
Size 150 m
Size 63 m Pan
Preparing of the Test Sieve 2nd Stage of sieving. Similar to the 1st Stage, stack the test sieve in a proper sequence. The lid or cover will be placed on the top of the sequence. The sequence is the test sieve size of size 2 mm on top and the test sieve of size 63 m with the pan will be at the bottom.

Set Up the Sieve Shaker Transfer the stacked test sieve to the sieve shaker. Do not attached the stabilizing bar yet.
Size 2 mm Size 1.18 mm Size 600 m
Size 425 m Size 300 m

Size 212 m Size 150 m Size 63 m Pan

Transferring the Soil Remove the lid. Pour the soil (196 g) to the top most opening of the stacked test sieve. Be extra careful when pouring the soil into the sieves.
Size 2 mm Size 1.18 mm Size 600 m
Size 425 m Size 300 m

Size 212 m Size 150 m Size 63 m Pan

Get Ready to Shake Fasten the lid. Fasten and tighten the stabilizing bar on top of the stacked sieve. Set the dial knob to 10 minutes. Press On. The shaking starts.
Size 2 mm Size 1.18 mm Size 600 m Size 425 m Size 300 m Size 212 m Size 150 m Size 63 m Pan

Weighing the Retained Soil on the Test Sieves Remove the stabilizing bar on top of the stacked sieve. Remove the lid. Remove the stacked sieves from the sieve shaker. Prepare the test sieves for individual weighing with the retained soil.

Weighing the Retained Soil on the Test Sieves
The mass of soil retained can be obtained by deducting the mass of the test sieve obtained on earlier stage of testing.

S.O.L.A.T Interface

Determine the Characteristics Size : (from the PSD plot @ chart) D10 = 0.27 mm D30 = 1.60 mm D60 = 5.30 mm
Sieving
D60
D30 D10
0.27
1.6
5.3

Determine the Grading Characteristics : (i) Effective size = D10 = 0.27 mm (ii) Coefficient of Uniformity Cu = D60 = 5.30 = 19.6 D10 0.27

Determine the Grading Characteristics :
(iii) Coefficient of Gradation or Coefficient of Curvature Cg = (D30)2 = (1.60)2 D60 x D10 (5.30 x 0.27)
= 1.78

Determine the Percentage of Particle Size : (from the PSD plot @ chart) Gravel = 65 % Sand = 35 % Fines = 0 %
Sieving
Percentage of Particle Size
65 % Gravel 35 % Sand 0% Fines (Silt & Clay)

Classifying the Soil : (from data @ grading and BS1377/BS5930) Cu > 5 ; It indicates that it is a well graded soil. & 0.5 < Cg < 5 ; It indicates that it is a well graded soil.
Sieving

Classifying the Soil : (from data @ grading and BS1377/BS5930) It is a Well graded Gravel (GW).
Classification of Fine Soils

Consistency Limits & Plasticity Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits)

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils : 1. Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid. 2. Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic. Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.

Plasticity Index Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests. The consistency of most soils the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency.

The range of water content over which a soil has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI).
IP = Liquid Limit - Plastic Limit = wL wP
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
water content
Shrinkage limit
Plastic limit
Liquid limit

Volume Plasticity Index IP
Natural Water Content, W
Va VS Solid
Semi Plastic Solid
Liquid Plastic
WS
Wp
WL
% Water Content

Plasticity Chart Measures of liquid and plastic limit valuesIn the British Standard Soil Classification fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity index and liquid limit values. CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are defined as given below :

Low plasticity Intermediate plasticity High plasticity Very high plasticity Extremely high plasticity wL wL wL wL wL = = = = = < 35% 35 - 50% 50 - 70% 70 - 90% > 90%

Plasticity Chart USCS / ASTM

Activity So-called clay soils are not 100% clay. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 m size) in a fine soil affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is called the activity of the soil. Activity = Ip / (% clay particles)

Some typical values are:
Mineral Activity Soil Activity
Muscovite
Kaolinite
0.25
0.40
Kaolin clay
Glacial clay and loess
0.4-0.5
0.5-0.75
Illite
Montmorillonite
0.90
> 1.25
Most British clays

Organic estuarine clay
0.75-1.25
> 1.20
Atterbergs Limits Testing Procedure

Liquid Limit (LL) Testing 1. Cone Penetrometer Method 2. Casagrande Method
Plastic Limit (PL) Testing
Shrinkage Limit Testing
Atterbergs Limits Testing Procedure (Cone Penetration)

Dial gauge with 360O read out. Example : (1O = 0.1 mm) Penetration lever. This lever moves the dial gauge needle.
Height adjustment for cone and dial gauge assembly
Cone : Mass 80 g Length 35 mm Angle 30O
Manual cone release and locking device. An automatic electric release and locking device is also available.
Soil in metal cup : 55 mm diameter 40 mm deep iDeaz
Atterbergs Limits Testing Procedure (Cone Penetration)

Electric LL Cone Penetrometer

Cone Penetrometer Method Stages involve in testing : 1. Sample preparation 2. Mixing with water 3. Maturing 4. Remixing 5. Placing in cup 6. Setting up the Cone Penetrometer 7. Measuring the Cone penetration 8. Moisture content determination 9. Remixing & Repeat test 10.Calculation 11.Results

Soil Sample
1. Sample Preparation
The soil sample that are used have to pass the 425 micron sieve. Next a representative sample is required weighing around 200250 g.
Size 425 m
Soil Passing Sieve Size 425 m
Pan
Soil retained on pan 200 250 g

Pan
2. Mixing with Water Then the sample is transferred to a flat glass plate, Distilled water is added and the soil and water are mixed thoroughly with two palette knives until the mass becomes a thick homogenous paste.
Glass Plate

3. Maturing The paste is then transferred to an air-tight container for 24 hours to allow the water time to penetrate the soil fully. For a soil of a low clay content, such as silty soil, the curing period may be omitted and the test can be carried out immediately.
Glass Plate
Air Tight Container

4. Remixing Remove the soil from the container after maturing. Transfer the soil to the glass plate. Remix it with pallette knives for 10 minutes. It is essential to obtain a uniform distribution of water throughout the sample.
Air Tight Container
Glass Plate

5. Placing in Cup Push a portion of the sample into the cup with a palette knife taking care not to trap air. Strike off the excess and with the pallette knife to get a smooth and level surface.
Cone Penetration Cup
Cup fully filled with soil
Atterbergs Limits Testing1 Procedure

2
6. Setting Up the Cone Penetrometer
Pull up the penetration lever. Dial gauge will be set at Zero.
4
Adjust the height till the top of the cup comes at a distance where it do not come into contact with the tip of the cone.
iDeaz
Pull out the locking device.
Push up the cone until it come into contact with the end of penetration lever.

Once the height of the equipment has been set, make sure that the small gap is sufficient for the penetration tin can slide or move easily without any contact with the tip of the cone penetrometer.
6. Setting Up the Cone Penetrometer
7. Measuring Cone Penetration
1
Placed the cup (containing soil) at the center of the base @ the cone tip is at the center of the cup.
Push in the 2 locking device in order to unlock Push In the cone and thus, releasing the cone. 3
Cone Penetrates
iDeaz

Initial Level
5
Read the dial gauge reading, ie. it will corresponds to the penetration of the cone.
*Refer notes
Push down carefully the penetration lever. The dial gauge needle will move. The lever should be just come into contact with the top end of the cone piece. Do not exert in pushing the lever as it would further penetrate the cup.
iDeaz

*
Release the cone for a period of 5 s (plus or minus 1 s) if the apparatus is not fitted with an automatic release and locking device. After 5s the cone should have, to some extent, penetrated the smooth surface of the soil. Record the penetration reading to the nearest 0.1 mm. Lift out the cone and clean it carefully, to avoid scratching, then add a little more wet soil and repeat the test.

*
If the difference between the first and second penetration readings is less than 0.5 mm record the average of the two penetrations. If the second penetration is more than 0.5 mm and less than 1 mm from the first, carry out a third test. If the overall range is then not more than 1 mm record the average of the three penetrations. If the overall range is more than 1 mm remove the soil from the cup, remix and repeat until consistent results are obtained.

*
The ideal penetration for a first reading is between 13 mm to 16 mm. If it is less than 13 mm, than the test requires a lot more nos. of tests (more plotting points). If it is more than 16 mm the nos. of test will be less and as a results the plotting points will not look presentable.

8. Moisture Content Determination Take a moisture content sample of about 10 g from the cup around the area penetrated by the cone. The moisture content sample should not be smeared into the container but instead dropped cleanly by tapping the spatula held close to the container.
Oven
Tapping
The soil sample falls into the moisture content tin

8. Moisture Content Determination

Transfer the remainder of the soil from the cup to the glass plate for remixing
9. Remixing & Repeat Test Repeat the test at least three more times using the same sample of soil. A further increments of distilled water have been added. Proceeding from the drier state to the wetter.
Glass Plate

*
9. Remixing & Repeat Test
The amount of water added shall be such that a range of penetration values of approximately 15 mm 25 mm is covered by four or more test runs and is evenly distributed. Each time the soil is removed from the cup for the addition of water the cup and cone must be thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left for any length of time it should be covered with a damp cloth to prevent it drying out.
10. Calculation
Calculate the moisture content of each test sample. Each cone penetration (mm) is plotted as ordinate against the corresponding moisture content (%) as abcissa, both to linear scale on a graph. Plot the relationship between the moisture content and the corresponding cone penetration recorded on a linear chart.
10. Calculation
X axis : Moisture Content Y axis : Cone Penetration Draw a line of best fit between the points.

Graph Plot.
10. Calculation
11. Results
From the curve read off the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm to the first decimal place. Express this moisture content to the nearest whole number and report it as the liquid limit. For notification, the plastic limit and plasticity index are usually reported with the liquid limit.

1
11. Results
Draw the 20 mm line
Intersection of the 20 mm line with the best fit line
Read off the moisture content value to the nearest whole number; 67% i.e LL = 67
Atterbergs Limits Testing Procedure (Casagrande)
iDeaz
(Casagrande)
Motorized Casagrande
(Casagrande)
ASTM
BS
Casagrande Liquid Limit Equipment with Grooving Tools

Casagrande Method Stages involve in testing : 1. Sample preparation 2. Mixing with water 3. Maturing 4. Remixing 5. Setting the equipment 6. Placing soil in the Casagrande up 7. Applying the Groove 8. Applying the Blows @ Taps 9. Moisture content determination 10.Remixing & Repeat test 11.Calculation 12.Results

Soil Sample
1. Sample Preparation
The soil sample that are used have to pass the 425 micron sieve. Next a representative sample is required weighing around 200250 g.
Size 425 m
Soil Passing Sieve Size 425 m
Pan

Pan
2. Mixing with Water Then the sample is transferred to a flat glass plate, Distilled water is added and the soil and water are mixed thoroughly with two palette knives until the mass becomes a thick homogenous paste.
Glass Plate

3. Maturing The paste is then transferred to an air-tight container for 24 hours to allow the water time to penetrate the soil fully. For a soil of a low clay content, such as silty soil, the curing period may be omitted and the test can be carried out immediately.
Glass Plate
Air Tight Container

4. Remixing Remove the soil from the container after maturing. Transfer the soil to the glass plate. Remix it with pallette knives for 10 minutes. It is essential to obtain a uniform distribution of water throughout the sample.
Air Tight Container
Glass Plate
5. Setting up the equipment

Height adjustment screw
1cm
Adjust the drop height of the liquid limit device to 1 cm using the space block or some grooving tool has an attached tip at the end of the grooving tool. Measure the drop height from the block to where the bowl hits the block.

6. Placing in Casagrande Cup With the cup of the apparatus resting on it's base, place a portion of the sample in the cup, without entrapping air ensure the cup is filled and level.

Soil Level
6. Placing in Casagrande Cup
Soil Level
iDeaz
Soil should be levelled as flat as possible
The level of the soil to be placed into the Casagrande cup have to follow the dotted line as indicated in the picture by using the pallete knife.
7. Applying the Groove
Grooving tool positioned at the centre of the cup
Movement of grooving tool
iDeaz
The canal created using the tip of the grooving tool
The level of the soil to be placed into the Casagrande cup have to follow the dotted line as indicated in the picture by using the pallete knife.
7. Applying the Groove
The Groove BEFORE applying the blows @ bumps.
The channel created using the tip of the grooving tool
The Groove mark and canal
8. Applying the Blows @ Taps
Turn the crank handle at a rate of approximately 2 rotations/s so that the cup is lifted and dropped, counting the number of bumps. Continue until the two parts of the sample come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm. Record the number of bumps required.
8. Applying the Blows @ Taps
The Groove AFTER applying the blows @ bumps.
13 mm
13 mm
The Groove mark and canal is closed at a length of 13 mm
13 mm

9. Moisture Content Determination Take a moisture content sample of about 10 g from the cup around the area closed groove area. The moisture content sample should not be smeared into the container but instead dropped cleanly by tapping the spatula held close to the container.
Oven
Tapping
The soil sample falls into the moisture content tin

9. Moisture Content Determination

Transfer the remainder of the soil from the cup to the glass plate for remixing
10. Remixing & Repeat Test Repeat the test at least three more times using the same sample of soil. A further increments of distilled water have been added. Proceeding from the drier state to the wetter.
Glass Plate

*
10. Remixing & Repeat Test
The amount of water added shall be such that a range of blows @ taps @ bumps values of approximately 35 blows 15 blows count are covered by four or more test runs and is evenly distributed. Each time the soil is removed from the cup for the addition of water the cup and cone must be thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left for any length of time it should be covered with a damp cloth to prevent it drying out.

Graph Plot.
11. Calculation
11. Calculation
Calculate the moisture content of each test sample. Each cone penetration (mm) is plotted as ordinate against the corresponding moisture content (%) as abcissa, both to linear scale on a graph. Plot the relationship between the moisture content and the corresponding cone penetration recorded on a linear chart.
11. Calculation
X axis : Number of Taps Counts (logarithmic) Y axis : Moisture Content Draw a line of best fit between the points.
12. Results
From the curve read off the moisture content corresponding to the 25 taps of the cup to the first decimal place. Express this moisture content to the nearest whole number and report it as the liquid limit. For notification, the plastic limit and plasticity index are usually reported with the liquid limit.
12. Results
1
Draw the 25 taps line
3
Read off the moisture content value to the nearest whole number; 72.5% i.e LL = 73
2
Intersection of the 25 taps line with the best fit line
25

Chapter 1

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Chapter 1

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ECG203 BASIC SOIL MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1: Physical Properties and Classification of Soil

1.1.1: Soil Origin

Soils originate from solid rocks such as igneous,

metamorphic and sedimentary.

Natural soil deposits

- Transported soils may be classified into several

1.1.2: Mineral composition of soil

Water Dissolved salts

Rock fragments Mineral grains Organic matter

Three phase soil model

1.1.3: Engineering Soil Terminology

1.2.1: Soil Phase Diagram

Va = volume of air Vw = volume of water Vs = volume of solid = 1 (1m3 of solid material)

The model is constructed of 1m3 of solid material and

Voids (air + Water) solid a) Void ratio

1.2.2: Mass-Volume relationship

w = density of water = 1000kg/m3 = 1.0Mg/m3

Dry density (d) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

d = mass of solid = ms total volume V therefore, d = Gsw 1+e

Relation between dry density (d) and bulk density (b)

but Sre = wGs

k) Saturated density (sat) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

when soil become saturated, Sr = 1 and b becomes saturated (sat)

l) Submerged density or effective density ( or sub) (kg/m3) = sub = sat w (12)

= force/unit volume (13)

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil

Classification of Coarse Soil

Sieving Testing Procedure

Electric Sieve Shaker

Hand Operated Sieve Shaker

Sieving Testing Procedure

Sieving Testing Procedure

Sieving Testing Procedure

Perforated Plate Sieve (Square Hole)

Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

Sieving Testing Procedure

Perforated Plate Sieve (Square Hole)

Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

Sieving Testing Procedure

Sieving Testing Procedure

Sieving Test Procedure

Sieve Size 50mm

Smaller Aperture Size

Sieve Size 63m

Sieving Test Procedure

Mass of soil = 2458 g

Sieving Test Procedure

Sieving Test Procedure

Sieve Shaker Endecott EFL 2000