The Respiratory System

Anatomy
The respiratory system is made up of the organs involved in the interchange of gases, and consists of the following: Nose and nasal cavity. Para nasal sinuses. Pharynx. Larynx. Trachea. Lungs. Bronchi. Alveoli.

Nasal Cavity
Lined by Ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium. Cilia and mucus along the inside wall of the nasal cavity trap and remove dust and pathogens from the air as it flows through the nasal cavity. The cilia move the mucus down the nasal cavity to the pharynx, where it can be swallowed. Mucosa of nasal cavity humidifies the inhaled air.

Ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium. of respiratory part of nasal cavity.

Para nasal sinuses.

Humidifying and heating of inhaled air because of slow air turnover in this region.

Pharynx
The pharynx is part of the digestive system and respiratory system of many organisms. Because both food and air pass through the pharynx, a flap of connective tissue called the epiglottis closes over the trachea when food is swallowed to prevent choking or aspiration. In humans the pharynx is important in vocalization.

Larynx
During swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces the epiglottis over the glottis' opening to prevent swallowed material from entering the larynx which leads to the lungs; the larynx is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by ingested matter produces a strong cough reflex to protect the lungs.

Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a cartilaginous and membranous tube, extending from the lower part of the larynx, on a level with the sixth cervical vertebra, to the upper border of the fifth thoracic vertebra, where it divides into the two bronchi, one for each lung.

Bronchi
The trachea splits into right and left main stem bronchi. These are the major air passages from the trachea to the lungs and are similar to the trachea in tissue composition. The main stem bronchi enter each lung and progressively branch off into more than 23 paired subdivisions. At every branching, the number of airways increases greatly. The entire structure, from the trachea to the smallest bronchioles, resembles an upside-down branching tree-the tracheobronchial tree.

Alveoli
The alveolar sacs are tiny, thinwalled, cup-shaped structures are lined with a detergent-like substance known as surfactant, which reduces surface tension and prevents them from collapsing during breathing. Another substance in the alveolar wall, elastin, applies an elastic force to "shrink" the alveoli during exhalation. There are approximately 3,000,000 alveoli in the lungs.

Lungs
Right lung: Weight 625 g 3 lobes 2fissures 10 segments Left lung: Weight 575 g 2 lobes 1 fissure Segments range from 8-10 normally 10.

The essential tissue of the lunglung parenchymais made up of clusters of spongy air sacs called lobule. There are about 130,000 primary lobules in each lung. Each lobule is approximately 3.5 millimeters in diameter and contains about 2,200 alveoli (air sacs and ducts)

Nerve supply
The lungs are supplied from the anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses, formed chiefly by branches from the sympathetic and vagus.

Blood supply
Bronchial artery-oxygen blood supply nutrition to pulmonary tissue Pulmonary artery-gas exchange Blood supply to respiratory and terminal bronchiole by bronchial artery Alveolar duct and alveolar sac- pulmonary artery

Physiology:
Physiological control systems involving the nervous system usually have three components. These are: 1. a central controlling area 2. an afferent pathway and 3. an efferent pathway.

Central controlling area

The central controlling area for breathing, called the respiratory centre, is in the lower part of the brain stem, in the medulla oblongata.

Afferent pathway
Central chemoreceptor's There are cells in the floor of the fourth ventricle (part of the brain stem) that respond to the acidity of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the output from these cells influences breathing

Peripheral chemoreceptor's
The carotid and aortic bodies are small pieces of tissue that contain chemoreceptor's which respond to the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in arterial blood. Sensory impulses bound for the breathing centre from the aortic body are sent via the vagus nerve, whereas those from the carotid bodies travel via the left and right glossopharyngeal nerves (both sides of neck)

Brain
Coordinated by the autonomic system in the hypothalamus and the vasomotor centre in the brain stem. For example: distressing sights, response to massive blood loss.

Efferent pathways:
Phrenic nerve(C 2,3,4)- diaphragm Intercostal musclesT-1 to T-12 Accessory muscles of the neck- Cervical plexus

Function:
Primary function is to obtain oxygen for use by body's cells & eliminate carbon dioxide that cells produce.

Concept of partial pressure:

Alveoli PO2 = 100 mm Hg PCO2 = 40 mm Hg Alveolar capillaries PO2 = 40 mm Hg (relatively low because this blood has just returned from the systemic circulation & has lost much of its oxygen) PCO2 = 45 mm Hg (relatively high because the blood returning from the systemic circulation has picked up carbon dioxide)

Oxygen is carried in blood: 1 - bound to hemoglobin (98.5% of all oxygen in the blood) 2 - dissolved in the plasma (1.5%) Carbon dioxide - transported from the body cells back to the lungs as: 1 - bicarbonate (HCO3) - 60% formed when CO2 (released by cells making ATP) combines with H2O (due to the enzyme in red blood cells called carbonic anhydrase) as shown in the diagram below 2 - carbaminohemoglobin - 30% formed when CO2 combines with hemoglobin (hemoglobin molecules that have given up their oxygen) 3 - dissolved in the plasma - 10%

The End