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Modulation
Modulation
is the process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is changed according to instantaneous value of another signal known as modulating signal.
Carrier
a high frequency sinusoidal waveform is used as carrier signal, but a square wave pulse train may also be 2 used.
Why do we modulate?
Efficient antennas of reasonable physical size needs to be constructed for radio communication systems . To send a signal over long distance it requires more energy. So when the frequency is low , energy will be obviously low. To increase the energy of the signal we need to increase the frequency. This is achieved by modulation. Modulation is required to transmit signals from various sources simultaneously over a common 3 channel by shifting them to different portions of
Types of modulation
Modulation
Anal
lati n
Di ital
lati n
Analog Modulation
When an analog modulating signal is used to change the characteristics of a carrier signal,it is known as Analog Modulation. Two types: 1. Continuous wave modulation e.g.AM,FM,PM 2. Pulse modulation e.g.PAM,PWM,PPM
Digital Modulation
Digital modulation is the process by which digital symbols are transformed into waveforms that are compatible with the characteristics of the channel. To carry out digital modulation, we need:
A digital message or information or modulating signal and A sinusoid carrier wave or simply a carrier
Input transducer
Modulator
Transmission Channel
Carrier Receiver
analog signal digital signal
Output transducer
Demodulator
c(t ) ! Ac cos([c t Jc )
[ ! 2Tf
c(t ) ! Ac cos(2Tf c t Jc )
where fc = frequency in hertz (Hz)
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Changing Changing frequency amplitude (fc) of (Ac) of carrier carrier according to according to modulating modulating signal signal
Changing Combination phase (Jc) of ASK and (J PSK of carrier according to modulating signal
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c(t)
y (t ) ! m(t ) v c(t )
m(t): modulating signal (baseband signal) c(t): carrier wave (high frequency cosine)
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1)
2)
c (t ) !
cos( 2Tf c t Jc )
Binary PSK (BPSK) represents ones and zeros by shifting the phase by J1 and J2 Binary zero p phase J1 (0 rad or 0r) 0r Binary one p phase J2 (T rad or 180r) 180r
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c(t+ T/2)
c(t+
T)
c(t+ 3T/2)
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J=T/2
Decision region 2
Decision region 1
J=T
m2
m1
J=0
Decision boundary
J=3T/2
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m2
Decision region 3 Decision region 1
J=T
m3 m4
Decision region 4
m1
J=0
Decision boundary
J=3T/2
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J=T/2 m3 m4
Region 2
m2 m1 m6 m8 m7
Region 8
m5
J=0
Region 1
Region 6
J=3T/2
Region 7
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2E cos[c t Ji (t )
i (t ) ! T
E is the symbol energy and T is the information signals symbol time duration. i=1, 2, ..M. Phase term Ji(t) has M discrete values given by
2Ti Ji (t ) ! M
PSK Coding
BPSK: each state (m1, m2) is represented by one digit (0, 1) QPSK: each state (m1, m2, m3, m4) is represented by two digits (00, 01, 10, 11) 8PSK: each state is presented by three digits (000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111) Etc
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QPSK Implementation
By expanding the general expression, QPSK can be implemented in the following way. In QPSK the information bit stream is divided to form two streams, in-phase (I) and in quadrature (Q), comprising of inthe even and odd bits of the original information signal respectively Since each transmitted symbol is represented by two successive binary pulses, the symbol rate of the I and Q waveforms is half the bit rate of the information signal (Rs=Rb/log2M). Rs=Rb/log Subsequently the bipolar I and Q streams are used to modulate the components of a carrier frequency in quadrature
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QPSK Modulator
Two carriers are in phase quadrature. In the case of the in phase data stream, the phase of the cosine carrier is shifted, at symbol transitions, between 0o and 180o Equivalently the quadrature data stream shifts the phase of the sine function between 90o and 270o The modulated signals are combined linearly to produce the QPSK waveform (t)=0o, 90o, 180o and 270o (t)=0
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QPSK Waveform
QPSK Demodulator
Combination of ASK and PSK What this actually means is that the amplitude and the phase of the carrier wave are simultaneously changed according to the information you want to transmit.
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QAM Modulator
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of Errors
Detection Error
Correction
can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, error must be detected and corrected are implemented either at the data link layer or the transport layer of the OSI model
Application
Application Interface
Network Layer
Error correc
Logic link control
Datalink layer
MAC Layer
PHY Layer
Error detection
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Type of Errors
Type of Errors(contd)
Single-Bit Single-
Error is when only one bit in the data unit has changed.
Type of Errors(contd)
Multiple-Bit Multiple-
Error is when two or more nonconsecutive bits in the data unit have changed.
Burst
Error means that two or more consecutive bits in the data unit have changed
Type of Errors(contd)
Detection
Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination
Detection(contd)
Redundancy
Detection(contd)
Detection
methods
Detection(contd)
VRC(Vertical
Redundancy Check)
A parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s(including the parity bit) becomes even for even-parity evencheck or odd for odd-parity check odd VRC can detect all single-bit errors. It can singledetect multiple-bit or burst errors only the multipletotal number of errors is odd.
Detection(contd)
Even
LRC(Longitudinal
Parity bits of all the positions are assembled into a new data unit, which is added to the end of the data block
Detection(contd)
Detection(contd)
A
Detection(contd)
CRC generator
uses modular-2 division. modular- division.
Detection(contd)
Checksum
used
by the higher layer protocols is based on the concept of redundancy(VRC, LRC, CRC .)
Checksum
Generator Detection(contd)
Error Correction
~ can be handled in two ways
When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.This is also known as Automatic repeat request (ARQ) A receiver can use an error-correcting code, errorwhich automatically corrects certain errors.(FEC)
Error Correction(contd)
Error Correction methods
1. Hamming codes 2. Convolutional codes 3. Reed Solomon codes
Error Correction(contd)
Hamming Code(n,k)
Developed by R.W .Hamming Linear block codes Criteria: Criteria:2r > m+r+1 m+r+1 m no. of message bits no. r no. of parity bits no. Hamming codes can detect up to two simultaneous bit errors, and correct single-bit errors. single- errors. Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code-: code-
Error Correction(contd)
each
Error Correction(contd)
Redundancy
bits calculation(contd)
Error Correction(contd)
Redundancy
bits calculation
Calculating
Error Correction(contd)
Error
Error
Convolutional Codes
Convolutional codes work on bit or symbol streams of arbitrary length. Error checking and correcting carried out continuously (n, k, K) code Input processes k bits at a time Output produces n bits for every k input bits K = constraint factor k and n generally very small n-bit output of (n, k, K) code depends on: (n Current block of k input bits Previous K-1 blocks of k input bits
Convolutional Encoder
Convolutional Codes
Decoding
Trellis diagram expanded encoder diagram Viterbi code error correction algorithm oCompares received sequence with all possible transmitted sequences oAlgorithm chooses path through trellis whose coded sequence differs from received sequence in the fewest number of places oOnce a valid path is selected as the correct path, the decoder can recover the input data bits from the output code bits
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Convolutional Codes
Convolutional codes are used extensively in numerous applications in order to achieve reliable data transfer, including digital video, radio,mobile communication, video, radio, communication, and satellite communication. These codes are often communication. implemented in concatenation with a hard-decision code, hardparticularly Reed Solomon codes.
t number of redundancy symbols s errors in block r erasures in block (occur when the position of an error is known.)
1. The decoder will detect but cannot recover the original code word. Or: mis2. The decoder will mis-decode and recover an incorrect code word without any indication. The probability of each of those cases depends on the specific RS code.
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Check digit
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2
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