Thermodynamics

y Thermodynamics is the study of energy.

OR y Thermodynamics is the study of the movement of heat from one body to another and the relations between heat and other forms of energy. OR y Thermodynamics is the study of the connection between heat and work and the conversion of one into the other.

y Energy ability to do work. y Work Force exerted over a distance.

Heat and Temperature

y HeatA form of energy that flows from a

warmer object to a cooler object. y Caloriethe amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius in temperature. y Temperaturea relative term reflecting how vigorously the atoms of a substance are moving and colliding.

Units of Heat
y Calorie y A calorie is  the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1oC.  1 kcal = 1000 cal  The calorie is outdated and commonly replaced by the SI-unit Joule. y Joule  The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is  The mechanical energy which must be expended to raise the temperature of a unit weight (2 kg) of water from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33oF.  1 J (Joule) = 9.478 10-4 Btu

Why is the study of Thermodynamics important?

The study of thermodynamics is important because many machines and modern devices change heat into work, such as an automobile engine or turn work into heat or cooling, such as with a refrigerator. Understanding how thermodynamics works helps you understand how machines that use thermodynamics work.

What are the different forms of energy?

y Energy has a number of different forms, all of

which measure the ability of an object or system to do work on another object or system. y In other words, there are different ways that an object or a system can possess energy.

Basic Forms of Energy

y Kinetic Energy:  Consider a baseball flying through the air. The ball is said to have "kinetic energy" by virtue of the fact that its in motion relative to the ground. y Potential Energy:


Consider a book sitting on a table. The book is said to have "potential energy" because if it is nudged off, gravity will accelerate the book, giving the book kinetic energy. Therefore, it has potential.

Basic Forms of Energy contd

y Thermal or Heat Energy:  Consider a hot cup of coffee. The coffee is said to possess "thermal energy", or "heat energy," which is really the collective, microscopic, kinetic, and potential energy of the molecules in the coffee.

Basic Forms of Energy contd

y Chemical Energy:  Consider the ability of your body to do work. The glucose (blood sugar) in your body is said to have "chemical energy" because the glucose releases energy when chemically reacted (combusted) with oxygen.

Basic Forms of Energy contd

y Electrical Energy  All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of smaller particles, called protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons orbit around the center, or nucleus, of atoms, just like the moon orbits the earth. The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.  Material, like metals, have certain electrons that are only loosely attached to their atoms. They can easily be made to move from one atom to another if an electric field is applied to them. When those electrons move among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created.

Basic Forms of Energy contd

y Electrochemical Energy:  Consider the energy stored in a battery. Like the example above involving blood sugar, the battery also stores energy in a chemical way. But electricity is also involved, so we say that the battery stores energy "electro-chemically". Another electron chemical device is a "fuel-cell".

Basic Forms of Energy contd

y Sound Energy:  Sound waves are compression waves associated with the potential and kinetic energy of air molecules. When an object moves quickly, for example the head of drum, it compresses the air nearby, giving that air potential energy. That air then expands, transforming the potential energy into kinetic energy (moving air). The moving air then pushes on and compresses other air, and so on down the chain.

Basic Forms of Energy contd

Electromagnetic Energy (light): Consider the energy transmitted to the Earth from the Sun by light (or by any source of light). Light, which is also called "electro-magnetic radiation". Why the fancy term? Because light really can be thought of as oscillating, coupled electric and magnetic fields that travel freely through space (without there having to be charged particles of some kind around). It turns out that light may also be thought of as little packets of energy called photons (that is, as particles, instead of waves). The word "photon" derives from the word "photo", which means "light".

Basic Forms of Energy contd

y Nuclear Energy:  The Sun, nuclear reactors, and the interior of the Earth, all have "nuclear reactions" as the source of their energy, that is, reactions that involve changes in the structure of the nuclei of atoms.

REVIEW
y y y y y y y

Thermal or Heat Energy: Kinetic energy due to disordered motions of microscopic as molecules or atoms. Chemical Energy: Energy held in the covalent bonds between atoms in a molecule. Electrical Energy: Energy made available by the flow of electric charge through Electrochemical Energy: A combination of electrical and chemical energy where energy is stored in a chemical way. Sound Energy: Energy transmitted by pressure waves through air or other material. Electromagnetic Energy: The energy that travels in waves, such as ultra-violet radiation. It can be thought of as combination of electric and magnetic energy. Nuclear Energy: Energy that is created by splitting atoms of radioactive material such as uranium.

How is energy transported from place to place and transferred between objects?

y The most obvious and trivial way in which

energy is transported is when an object that possesses energy simply moves from one place to another. y For example, a baseball flying through the air is a simple form of energy transport.

Energy Transfer continued

y Kinetic energy can also be transferred from one

object to another when objects collide. This is also pretty trivial, except that we also know that the total energy, including any heat or other forms of energy generated during the collision, is conserved in this process, regardless of the relative sizes, shapes, and materials of the objects.

HEAT
y There are three important ways that heat

energy can be transported or transferred, called conduction, convection, and radiation. y The first two refer to transfer of the thermal energy, whereas the last is really a conversion of energy to a different form, (photons of light) and the subsequent travel (transport) of those photons.

NATURE OF HEAT
Heat is a transfer of thermal energy from an object at a higher temperature to an object at a lower temperature.


Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation. A conductor transfers heat well whereas an insulator does not. The amount of heat necessary to raise a given mass of a substance by a specific unit of temperature is called the specific heat.

KEY TERMS
 Conduction

The transfer of heat between particles within a substance.  Convection The transfer of heat by the movement of currents within a fluid.  Convection current The transfer of heat by the movement of currents within a fluid.  Radiation The transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.

KEY TERMS
 Conductor

The material that easily transfers heat between its particles.  Insulator A material that does not easily transfer heat between its particles.  Specific heat The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one gram Kelvin.

Conduction

The "diffusion" of thermal energy (heat) through a substance, which occurs because hotter molecules (those that are vibrating, rotating, or traveling faster), interact with colder molecules, and in the process transfer some of their energy. Metals are excellent conductors of heat energy, whereas things like wood or plastics are not good conductors of heat. Those that are not so good conductors are called insulators.

Convection
y The transfer of heat energy by the movement of a

substance, such as a heated gas or liquid from one place to another. y For example, hot air rising to the ceiling is an example of convection (in this case called a convection current).

Radiation
y In the context of heat transfer, however, the

term "radiation" refers just to light (electromagnetic waves), and in particular, to the surprising fact that all objects, even those that are in equilibrium (at equal temperature) with their surroundings, continuously emit, or radiate electromagnetic waves (that is, light waves) into their surroundings. y The source of this radiation is the thermal energy of the materials, that is, the movement of the object's molecules.

y Conductionscorching your

hand when you grab the handle of a hot pot y Convectionboiling water y Radiationstanding in front of your fireplace

First Law of Thermodynamics

y Energy can be changed from one form to another,

but it cannot be created or destroyed. y The total amount of energy and matter in the Universe remains constant, merely changing from one form to another. y The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

y Statement: In all energy exchanges,

if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

y All processes cease as temperature

approaches absolute zero. This is the temperature at which molecules cease movement, cease producing kinetic energy. In other words, there is no energy.