The Proton (p+):

 is located in the nucleus of the atom.  holds a weight of one, relative to a neutron or electron.  has a relative charge of +1, again compared to a neutron or electron.  is not an elementary particle- it is made up of two up quarks and one down quark.  is responsible for the identity of the atom.  was discovered by Eugene Goldstein.

Atomic Number:
Equal to the number of protons in an atom. Represents the identity of an atom no two elements have the same atomic number. For example, Hydrogen has 1 proton and an atomic # of 1, Carbon has 6 protons and an atomic # of 6, and Uranium has 92 protons and an atomic # of 92. Unchangeable through chemical processes.

Atomic Stability:
The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. By nature, the positive charge of the protons leads them to repel each other. However, both the protons and electrons attract each other with the strong nuclear force To remain stable, an atom has to have an appropriate proportion of protons to neutrons, individual to each atom. However, most atoms above number 83, bismuth, are unstable anyways.

An X-Ray of a human chest.

Radioactive Decay:
Radiation is emitted by radioactive elements or isotopes. Random creation of radiation from an atom is radioactivity. Alpha Radiation: An alpha particle, consisting of two protons and two neutrons, is emitted from an unstable atom. This is not relatively dangerous. Beta Radiation: A neutron changes into a proton and electron, the latter of which is expelled from the atom. This can damage the skin and tissues. Gamma Rays are energy created in alpha and beta decay, which can penetrate materials and tissue and can be very dangerous.

The Electrons (e-):

surround the nucleus in the electron cloud. hold a weight of zero, relative to a proton or neutron. have a relative charge to -1, compared to a neutron or electron. are elementary particles, as far as we know. in the valence shell cause most chemical activity. repel each other. spin around their axis, with a +1/2 or -1/2 spin. were discovered by J.J. Thompson

Ions:
Atoms with an electric charge. are determined by the number of electrons in an atom, relative to the number of protons: - a cation is a positive ion, where the # of p+ > e- an anion is a negative ion, where the # of p+ < e- a neutral atom has the # of p+ = e- . Polyatomic ions are charged bonded atoms.

Nuclear Fission:
is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into smaller parts, which often creates free neutrons and other particles. Some mass is lost in the process, and is converted to energy. This creates huge amounts of energy. Also, this can create nuclear chain reactions, used in bombs or for energy. For example, the fission of 4.5g of Uranium 235 can create enough energy to satisfy a single person for a year.

Half-Life:
The time it takes for about 50% of a radioactive isotope to decay into another isotope or element. Can be milliseconds or millions of years long. Most manmade elements have half-lives that are relatively short. An example of a long half life is that of Uranium-238, which decays into Thorium-234, and eventually Lead-206 after 13 intermediate products.

The Neutron (n0):

 is located in the nucleus of the atom.  holds a weight of one, relative to a proton or electron.  has a relative charge of 0 (1/1840 of a proton), again compared to a neutron or electron.  is not an elementary particle- it is made up of two down quarks and one up quark.  is responsible for the isotope and stability of the atom.  was discovered by James Chodic.

Mass Number:
Can vary from atom to atom of the same element. Changes with the specific number of neutrons, or isotope, of an atom of an element. Represented by the expression p+ + n0, showing the total number of protons and neutrons in a single atom.

Average Atomic Mass:

Average of the Mass Numbers of a sample of a particular atom, usually a large sample. Hydrogen s average atomic mass is 1.00794, an average of the abundance of H-1, H-2, and H-3.

Natural Background Radiation: Nuclear Fusion:

Two nuclei collide and fuse into a larger nuclei. Again, some mass is transformed into energy, using the equation E=mc2. It occurs naturally in stars. It has been artificially induced, but not controlled. Cold fusion is a research opportunity, with the idea to use nuclear fusion for energy. Nuclear Fission Plant, creating electrical energy. Everyone is exposed to minimal levels of radiation, which comes from sources including: Radioactive substances in the earth s crust. Cosmic rays from space. Trace amounts in the body. None of these are dangerous enough to hurt much of the general public.

Isotope:
is determined by the number of neutrons in an atom. Some isotopes are more stable, and therefore more common, than others. e.g. Hydrogen-1, with no neutrons, is most stable, followed by Hydrogen-2 with one neutron and then Hydrogen-3 with two neutrons.

Uses of Radiation:
There are many potential positive uses of radiation. These include: For tracers in chemical reactions, for research purposes. To kill microorganisms on food, sterilizing it. To create nuclear energy (through fission reactions) To determine the age of rocks and artifacts. In medicine, to diagnose diseases and injuries with x-rays and CAT scans, and to treat cancer with chemotherapy.

Quantized Energy:
According to Quantum Theory, energy, such as light, is not released in a constant stream, but in small bursts, or packets. These packets of energy are called Quantum, because they have a measurable quantity. For example, a quantum of light is called a photon. Photons emitted in a beam from a laser. 2.

Valence Electrons: Rules of Electrons:

1. Aufbau s rule: Electrons will fill the energy levels of an atom from lowest to highest energy needed, in order to gain the most stable configuration. Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two identical electrons can occupy the same quantum state (shell, subshell, and orientation). Therefore, for two electrons to hold the same state, they must have different spins. Hund s Rule: Each orbital in a subshell must be filled with one and only one electron before any of these gains a second, and each orbital with only one electron holds the same spin. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to determine both the momentum and position of any one electron. are defined as the electrons located on the outermost electron shell of an atom. are vital to bonding with other atoms. For the purpose of bonding, the s and p orbitals are often the only considered. The halogens have one valence electrons, and the noble gasses have eight (excluding helium, with two.) Atoms are most stable with a full or empty valence electron shell, achieved by gaining, giving away, or sharing electrons through bonds. Images Background: http://www.popul8.com.au/blog/wpcontent/uploads/atom-with-electrons.gif An Atom: http://www.vtaide.com/png/images/atom.jpg Three Isotopes of Hydrogen: http://education.jlab.org/glossary/isotope.gif Laser Photon Example: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/M ilitary_laser_experiment.jpg Atomic Orbitals: http://www.chemcomp.com/journal/molorbs/ao.gif Potassium Atom Electrons: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/ d/db/Electron_shell_019_Potassium.svg/558pxElectron_shell_019_Potassium.svg.png Schrdinger s Equation: http://www.physlink.com/Education/AskExperts/Images/ ae329a.jpg The Ikata Nuclear Power Plant: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ikata_Nuclear_Powerpla nt.JPG X-Ray of Human Chest: http://leadcreatively.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/xray.jpg Informational Sources Notes Heisenberg s Uncertainty Principle: http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/p08.htm

Energy Levels:
A diagram of the first nine orbitals. As stated in quantum theory, energy is stored and emitted in packets. Therefore, an electron has a quantized amount of energy, and can only have one amount from a limited list of energies. These differing energies are called energy levels.

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Schrdinger s Equation:
was made in the early 1900 s. is a wave equation used to describe the behavior of electrons. is used to find the permitted energy levels of quantum systems The associated wave function also describes the probability of finding an electron at a specific location.

Quantum Numbers: Orbitals:

At the base, atomic orbitals describe where an electron around the atom probably is. Depending on the energy level of an electron, as well as the number of electrons already below it, an electron will probably be in orbitals of increasing distance from the nucleus. In terms of electrons, the quantum number is a method that can describe the quantum state of a particular electron. The number of a specific electron is written with four terms: the shell number, subshell number, orientation, and spin of the electron. An example might be: 3 2 1 -1/2 This electron would be in the third shell, third subshell, second orientation, and would have a -1/2 spin. 4. A diagram of an potassium atom, with the electrons surrounding it in four different shells. All but the fourth energy shell, which only has one electron, are full and therefore stable.