RM - Notes

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT IS RESEARCH ? Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. - Clifford Woody.
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WHAT IS RESEARCH ? The manipulation of things, concepts and symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. - D. Slesinger and M.Stephenson Search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem is research - C.R.Kothari
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What is business research ?
Business research is a systematic inquiry whose objective is to provide information to solve managerial problems. - Cooper & Schindler
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RESEARCH MOTIVES
Inquisitiveness (Jidnyasa)
Uncomfortable with uncertainness Sustainable growth of business Academic and career excellence
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Objectives of Research Disciplined inquiry for taking decision in management dilemma related to functional areas like marketing, HR, Finance, System, Operations etc. To understand formulative or descriptive characteristics of the elements involved in decision making, frequency of their occurrence and associative or causal relationship amongst them.
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Objectives of Research
To know and understand a phenomenon.

To know characteristics of a situation To know frequency and association between two or more
entities or events
To know the causal relationship between two or more entities
or events
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Utility of research : Inculcation of scientific, logical and inductive thinking. Basis for governmental policies, Solving operational and planning problems of business and industry, Seeking answers to social problems. Useful for academicians, consultants etc.
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THEORY : a theory is contextualize a subject into a specific frame of study Theories are more complex , abstract and involve multiple variables. Theories are generalization made about the variables and their relationship with each other. For example, when the weather becomes very humid, the sky is cloudy, there is cold breeze and clouds thunder, we predict that it may rain. ( prediction based on weather Theory)
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Steps in developing a theory : conceptual definitions. domain limitations. relationship-building and predictions. Criteria for 'good theories : Abstraction. Generalizability. internal consistency. fecundity (Fruitfulness or utility).
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Deductive Theory : A form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises (reasons) given. Deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusions to be false if the premises are true. Example of deduction : All MBA students of MITSOM are placed in MNCs. (Premises # 1) Rohan is a MBA student of MITSOM (Premises # 2) Conclusion Rohan will be placed in MNC.
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Inductive Theory : A form of reasoning that draws a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. Example of induction : Statement Students are not scoring good marks in Research Methodology Question Why are students not scoring good marks in Research Methodology
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Inductive Theory (Cont.) From our knowledge of the subject, we, the students and the teacher, can formulate a few hypotheses. 1. Students dont study Research Methodology seriously. 2. The teacher teaching Research Methodology is not good. 3. Research Methodology is not a scoring subject. 4. Syllabus of Research Methodology is very vast. 5. Question papers of Research Methodology are always tough.
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Inductive Theory (Cont.) All the above hypotheses are likely to be true. But we have more confidence in some of them. They require further confirmation before we are reasonably confident about them. Confirmation will be based on evidence. The quality of evidence will depend on Nature of evidence ( ability to prove or disprove the hypothesis) Sources and measurement of the evidence ( Authenticity and accuracy of the evidence)
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Empiricism Describing, explaining and making predictions by relying on information gained through observations based on sensory experience and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic including mathematics and statistics. Deductive reasoning Theory Hypothesis Observation Conclusion. From the more general to the more specific. Inductive reasoning Observation Patterns Tentative hypothesis Testing of hypothesis Theory. From the more specific to the more general.
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Characteristics of Scientific Method : The scientific method is one and the same in branches of science and that method is the method of all logically trained minds the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its materials; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science. -- Karl Pearson. The scientific method encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedures directed by the demand of logic and objective procedure. Carlos L. Lastrucci
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Characteristics of Scientific Method : An inquiry into the nature of, the reason for and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, the research implies that the researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of results and their extension to more complicated and general situations. -- Ostle & Mensing.
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Factors stimulating scientific approach to decision making :
Increased need for more and better information.
Availability of better techniques and tools for this purpose.
Discipline in processing information to avoid Information Overload.

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Postulations in scientific method : Reliance on empirical evidence. Relevant concepts. Only objective consideration. Only adequate and correct statements about population objects. Probabilistic predictions. Aimed at scientific theories. Universality. Predictability. repeatability.
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Language of research Concept : Generally accepted collection of meaning or characteristics. ( Walking, running, jogging, hopping, rushing etc.) Provides common ground for understanding and communicating information. Construct :Image or idea specifically invented for a given research and /or theory building purpose particularly the image or idea cannot be directly observed. ( Concept of Customer satisfaction and construct of customer satisfaction index)
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Language of research Definition : A dictionary definition is a synonym which is adequate for general communication. An operational definition is stated in specific testing or measuring criteria. Variable : A concept which can take on different quantitative values. ( weight, height, income, satisfaction etc.)
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Types of variables Continuous The variable may take on take on values within a given range. e.g. income, age, temperature, etc. Dependent Variable (DV) A measured predicted or otherwise monitored variable expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable. Dependent variable is also known as criterion variable. Independent Variable (IV) The variable manipulated by the researcher, thereby causing an effect on the dependent variable. Independent variable is also known as explanatory variable or predictor variable.
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Types of variables Dichotomous : A variable for which only two options are available e.g. alive or dead, graduate or non-graduate. Discrete : a variable which has more than two options but is not limited by a continuous range. E.g. religion, vehicles owned. Extraneous : The variables which are not studied but affect the relationship of the studied variables. Most of them can be ignored or their effect on the relationship is insignificant. Intervening : The variable which theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated. Its effect can be inferred from the effect of independent variable on the dependent one. E.g. Motivation, Ego
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Types of variables Moderating : A second variable that is included in the relationship study because it is believed to have a significant contributory effect on the IV DV relationship. e.g. age of the employee (MV) will significantly affect the incentive (IV) and productivity (DV) relationship.
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Research Process Steps in research : 1. Define research problem What is to be found out ? 2. Review concepts/theory, Review previous research finding: -- What research work has been done so far ? 3. Formulate hypotheses What is the likely out come ? or researchers learned opinion ?
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Research Process Steps in research : 4. Research design What information is needed ? Who will give the information ? from how many to collect the information ? how to collect and analyse the information ? 5. Data collection What is the response to the questions ? 6. Data analysis and interpretation Do the hypotheses test positive or otherwise ? 7. Report how to present the findings, conclusions and suggestions ?
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The Research Process (As described by Cooper & Schindler) The researcher encounters a curiosity, doubt, suspicion, or obstacle. struggles to state the problem asks questions, contemplates existing knowledge, gathers facts and moves from an emotional to an intellectual confrontation with the problem. Proposes hypothesis to explain the facts that are believed to be logically related to the problem. Deducts outcome or consequences of the hypothesis attempts to discover what happens if the results are in the opposite direction of that predicted or if the results support the expectations.
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The Research Process (As described by Cooper & Schindler) The researcher Formulates several rival hypotheses. Devises and conducts a crucial empirical test with various possible outcomes, each of which selectively excludes one or more hypotheses. Draws a conclusion (an inductive inference) based on acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. Feeds information back into the original problem, modifying it according to the strength of the evidence.
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TYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive V/s Analytical Applied V/s Fundamental Conceptual V/s Empirical Exploratory V/s Diagnostic Hypothesis Testing One Time V/s Continuous
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RESEARCH APPROACHES Quantitative approach (Collection of quantitative data and analysis) 1. 2. 3. Inferential To form a database for inferences Experimental Manipulation of variable in controlled environment Simulation Operation of numerical model which represents the structure of a dynamic process.
Qualitative approach Subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Management question : Perceived problem of the management related to any management function. Research question : A research problem which refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the contest of either a theoretical or practical situation which needs a solution. Investigation questions : The questions the researcher asks to the respondents in order to find answer to the research problem.
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Components of research problem : A group or an individual having a problem which needs a solution. The researcher must have an objective. Alternative courses of action or means to achieve the objectives. Dilemma about selection of the course of action. An environment to which the problem pertains.
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Hypothesis - A proposition formulated for empirical testing. Types of hypotheses Descriptive hypothesis: A statement about the existence, size, form or distribution of a variable. Advantages of descriptive hypothesis- crystallizing thinking regarding likely relationship, thinking about the implications of supported or rejected hypothesis, testing statistical significance.
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Types of hypotheses Relational Hypothesis : A statement about the relation between two variables with respect to some case. Null hypothesis (H0) : Represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject. Alternative hypotheses (H1) : Represents all other possibilities.
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Characteristics of a good hypothesis : Clear and precise for inferences to be reliable. Suitable for testing. Stating the relationship between variables in relational hypothesis. Limited and specific scope for testing. Expressed in simple and easy to understand terms. Based on substantially established facts. Testable in a reasonable time. Based on empirical reference ( Earlier work or pilot surveys)
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Hypothesis testing logic and importance. Level of significance : The maximum value of the probability of rejecting Null hypothesis(H0) when it is true. Decision rule : Basis on which a Null hypothesis(H0) will be rejected or alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted. Type I error : Rejecting of hypothesis which should have been accepted. (Innocent unjustly convicted.) Type II error : Accepting a hypothesis which should have been rejected. ( Guilty unjustly acquitted.)
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Problem identification & Hypothesis formulation Two tailed test : This test rejects the null hypothesis if the Sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the population i.e. rejection of the hypothesis is on both the sides. One Tailed test : This test rejects the null hypothesis either if the sample mean is significantly lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the population or it is significantly higher. i.e. rejection of the hypothesis is only on one side left if the hypothesized value is lower and right if the hypothesized value is higher.
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RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to research purpose with economy in procedure - Claire Selltiz et.al.
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What is research design ?
The research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the scientist in allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices : Is the blue print to include experiments, interviews, observations, the analysis of records, simulation or some combination of these ? Are the methods of data collection and the research situation to be highly structured ? Is an intensive study of a small sample more effective than a less intensive study of a large sample ? Should the analysis be primarily quantitative or qualitative ? -- Bernard S. Phillips
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What is research design ?
Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is an overall scheme or programme of the research. It includes the outline of what the investigator do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of the data. A research design expresses both the structure of the research problem and the plan of investigation to obtain empirical evidence on relation of the problem. -- Fred Kerlinger
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Importance of proper research design :
Without a proper research design the purpose or the objective of the research will not be served. The reliability of the research finding depends greatly on the research design.
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STEPS IN RESEARCH DESIGN 1. What is our problem ? 2. What information will help in answering our problem ? 3. What outcome is expected ? 4. Who will give this information? 5. From how many shall the information be collected ? 6. How shall the information be collected? 7. Who will collect the information ? 8. How will the information be analyzed ? 9. How will the conclusions be reported ? 10. What are the constraints of time and money?
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FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

Clear objective Relevant information gathering Well formulated hypotheses Representative sample profile and size Appropriate research instruments Appropriate investigators Appropriate tools for data analysis User oriented reporting Optimum utilization of available resources
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RESEARCH DESIGN & TYPES OF RESEARCH
Type of research Exploratory Or Formulative Descriptive Or diagnostic Characteristics of design Only formulating problem or working hypothesis Flexible More literature survey and experience survey Need valid and reliable data Quantitative/qualitative analysis important
Hypothesis testing Experimental intervention research Cause-effect study Cause-
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Measurement & Attitude scaling techniques
What is measurement ? Measurement is assigning numbers to empirical events in compliance with a set of rules. Measurement process involves 1. Selecting observable empirical events 2. Developing a set of mapping rules (Assigning numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the events under observation) 3. Applying the mapping rules to each observation of the event.
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For example : If we want to measure Attendance of the students in MBA First year and MBA 2nd year, then Measurement characteristics will be as below.
Observation of
Year of study 1 for first year 2 for second year 1 1 2 1 3 2 4 2 5 1 1 G
Attendance P = Below 20 %, L= 21to50 % A=51 to 75 %, G= above 75 % 2 G 3 P 4 L 5 A
Mapping rule
Respondents Assigning symbol
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What is measured ? Properties of objects under observation are measured in empirical research. In the above example, Students are the objects and year of study and attendance are the properties. Physical properties include height , weight, age, income etc. and are easy to measure. Psychological properties include attitude, intelligence, motivation are difficult to measure. The problem of measurement in management research mainly arise because most of the observations are related to the psychological properties of the respondents. Therefore, various types of data are used for measurement of the properties of the objects under study.
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Types of Data : Nominal Data Assigning number symbols to events in order to label them. These numbers indicate the relative position in a series and cannot be arithmetically treated like addition or division. Ordinal Data Assigning numbers in in order but not in terms of some rule of intervals. (rank of students in examination Student who stands first is not three times better than the student who stands third. He is only better than 2nd and 3rd student) Interval data : The intervals between the numbers are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as the basis of making the units equal. There is an arbitrary zero and not an absolute zero in interval scale. (Fahrenheit scale 600 F is not twice as warm as 300 F) Ratio Data : Comparison of two units with an absolute zero of measurement. (Zero centimeter means absence of length. And 3 centimeters are three times longer than one centimeter.)
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Scaling is the procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. Scaling is the procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question. Types of scales : Dichotomous or simple category scale Two mutually exclusive response choices. (nominal data) Are you a diabetic patient ? Yes No Are you aware of XYZ Mutual Fund ? Yes No Multiple choice, single response scale multiple options from which only one is to be selected. (nominal data) Which age group you belong to ? Below 18yrs. 18 30 yrs. 30 50 years
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Above 50 years.
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Likert Scale Numerical response to indicate degree of attitudinal favourableness.(interval data) The quality of food in the restaurant is excellent (1 is Strongly disagree, 2 is Disagree, 3 is neither agree nor disagree, 4 is agree and 5 is strongly agree.) Semantic Differential Scale Psychological meaning of an attitude object. The Semantic Differential (SD) measures people's reactions to stimulus words and concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar scales defined with contrasting adjectives at each end. An example of an SD scale is: Extremely Bad -3 Quiet bad -2 Slightly bad -1 Neutral 0 Slightly good 1 Quiet good 2 Extremely Good 3
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Measurement And Scaling Sources of error in scaling :
(a) Respondent : Reluctance, ignorance, fatigue, boredom, anxiety leading to guesses and not true opinions. (b) Situation : Strain on respondent due to presence of others, fear of identity exposure, fear of confrontation with the audience leading to modified or false responses.
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MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

Measurement And Scaling
Sources of error in scaling : (c) Measurer : Behaviour, style and looks of the interviewer can affect the response. Incorrect coding, faulty tabulation, incorrect statistical calculations can also affect the findings. (d) Instrument : Complex words, ambiguous questions, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, inadequate choice of alternatives etc in a questionnaire can affect the response.
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RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN RESEARCH Reliability : The accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure. Validity : Extent to which a test measures what we actually want to measure.
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METHODS FOR RELIABILITY ESTIMATES Test retest : 1. Implement the measuring instrument at two separate times for each subject 2. Compute the correlation between the two separate measurements 3. Assume that there is no change in the underlying conditions between the two separate measurements.
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METHODS FOR RELIABILITY ESTIMATES Internal consistency : Two sets of questions aimed at measuring the same concept are administered to the same respondent and correlation is found out.
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METHODS FOR VALIDITY ESTIMATES
1.Content Validity : Extent to which the measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the investigative questions guiding the study. 2.Criterion validity : Extent to which each criteria can be correctly measured. E.g. income of a family. 3.Construct Validity : Extent to which the scales of measurement represent the actual opinions. ( 1 to 10 scale or very good to very poor scale)
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Data Collection
Secondary data : Data collected previously by the researcher himself or by others. Some sources of secondary data are , books, journals, annual reports, web sites News papers Business channels Characteristics of the secondary data : Reliability, Suitability and adequacy needs to be confirmed before using for the analysis for the problem in hand.
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Data Collection
Primary data : Data collected for the first time by survey, observation or experimentation. Proper sample profile and size and sampling method are important in survey. Reliability of observer (People or machine ) are important for observation method. Proper selection of independent variable and proper measuring of effect of treatment are important in experimental method. Observation Method People watching people People watching phenomenon Machine watching people Machine watching phenomenon
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Data Collection
Experimentation Method An experiment is a study involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in setting and observe how it affects the participants or subjects being studied. (People or physical entities) The researcher manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is affected by the intervention.
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Data collection in Experimental Designs
Type of designs
Before & after (No control group) After only (with control group) Before & after (with control group)
Measurements
Measurement of test group before treatment (X) and after treatment (Y) Measurement of test group (X) and Control group (Y) after treatment Measurement of test group (X1) and Control group (Y1) before treatment and measurement of test group (X2)and control group (Y2)after treatment
Treatment effect
(Y) (X)
(X)
(Y)
(X 2
X1)
(Y2
Y1)
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Data Collection Questionnaire construction :
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or a set of forms. The questions may be open ended or closed ended.
The respondent is supposed to write the answers herself or tell the answers to the investigator.
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Data Collection
Characteristics of a good questionnaire Questions worded simply and clearly, not ambiguous or vague, must be objective Attractive in appearance (questions spaced out, and neatly arranged) Write a descriptive title for the questionnaire Write an introduction to the questionnaire Order questions in logical sequence Keep questionnaire uncluttered and easy to complete Delicate questions last (especially demographic questions) Design for easy tabulation
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Data Collection
Characteristics of a good questionnaire (Cont.) Design to achieve objectives Define terms Avoid double negatives (I haven't no money) Avoid double barreled questions (this AND that) Avoid loaded questions ("Have you stopped beating your wife?") and leading questions ( Should quality of education be improved ?) Phrase questions for all respondents.
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SAMPLE DESIGN A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN Type of Universe Finite and infinite Sampling unit geographic, Social Source list Sampling frame Size of sample Optimal in number, precision and cost. Parameters of interest answering relevant questions Budgetary constraints - Cost considerations Sampling procedure Technique of collecting sample.
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SAMPLING PROCEDURE The sampling procedure shall avoid 1. Systematic bias : Error in sampling procedure due to inappropriate sampling frame, Defective measuring device, non-respondents, abnormal behaviour under observation etc. 2. Sampling error : random variation in the sample estimate around the true population parameters.
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SAMPLING DESIGN
Sample Size : Too small sample size may not be representative and hence generalization may not be possible. Too large sample size will lead to high cost and wastage of resources. Optimum size can be decided by considering the following factors. Nature of Universe Homogenous or heterogeneous ? (Dispersion) Number of classes Groups and subgroups in the universe. Nature of study intense and continuous or general survey ? Type of sampling random sampling or non-probability sampling ? Accuracy and confidence level High or low ? Availability of finance low or high ? Time frame short or long ? Probability of no response or wasted responses High or low ?
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
True representation of the population/universe Small sampling error Viable within the given budget Minimum systemic bias
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RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN Selection technique Unrestricted sampling Probability sampling Non- Probability sampling
Convenience Simple random sampling sampling (Random number tables by Fisher, Yates, Tippett) Complex random sampling like Systematic, stratified, Clustered etc.
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Restricted sampling
Purposive sampling like quota or judgment sampling
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COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN
Systematic Random sampling Stratified Random sampling Cluster Sampling Suppose if 10 % sampling out of 1000 population size is to be taken, then every 10th member is selected as 1st, 11th, 21st, 31st and so on till 91st member. If the population is not a homogenous group, then total population is divided into strata with homogenous members and proportionate sample is selected. When the total area of interest is large, the area is divided into smaller non-overlapping areas and equal samples are selected from each subarea randomly. If the area is divided in ten clusters and the total sample size is 1000, then 100 samples will be selected from each cluster.
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Probability sample: Unrestricted Simple random sampling Every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. Random number tables by Fisher, Yates, Tippett are used for selection of sample. Restricted complex random sampling Systematic Random sampling Suppose if 10 % sampling out of 1000 population size is to be taken, then every 10th member is selected as 1st, 11th, 21st, 31st and so on till 91st member. Stratified Random sampling If the population is not a homogenous group, then total population is divided into strata with homogenous members and proportionate sample is selected. Cluster Sampling - When the total area of interest is large, the area is divided into smaller non-overlapping areas and equal samples are selected from each subarea randomly. If the area is divided in ten clusters and the total sample size is 1000, then 100 samples will be selected from each cluster.
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Non-probability sample:
Unrestricted sampling Convenience sampling.
Restricted sampling Purposive sampling like quota or judgment sampling.
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Data preparation Frequency table A table that displays the number and/or percentage of units in different categories of variables. Example of a frequency table for a Business school students on the basis of discipline at graduate level
Discipline B.Sc. B.Com B.A. B.E. BBA Others Total
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Male No. 15 62 8 16 22 17 140 % 10.79 44.29 5.71 11.43 15.71 12.14 100.00
Female No. 3 35 5 3 8 6 40 % 5.00 58.33 8.33 5.00 13.33 10.00 100.00
Total No. 18 97 13 19 30 23 200 % 9.00 48.50 6.50 9.50 15.00 11.50 100.00
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Data preparation Pie charts, Bar charts, Histograms and stem and leaf chart etc. are also used to for displaying data. Univariate analysis : Measure of central tendency ( Statistical average) Mean, Median and Mode Measure of dispersion Range, Mean deviation and standard deviation Measurement of asymmetry (Skewness) Kurtosis (Mesokurtic and leptokurtic curves) Bi-variate analysis : Measure of relationship Correlation in case of bi-variate population through cross tabulation, Spearmans coefficient of correlation and Pearsons coefficient of correlation. Cause and effect relationship through simple regression equation. Chi-square Test Contingency table, expected value and actual value, degree of freedom, statistical significance,. Testing hypothesis of association.
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Interpretation of data and report writing Backward linkage of suggestions or recommendations to conclusions to Findings Observations to Analysis to Data. Layout of a Research Report to
Prefatory Information : This information does not have direct bearing on the research itself but it helps the reader in using the research report. Letter of Transmittal : The element of the final report that provides the purpose of, scope of, authorization for and limitations of the study. It contains title page, Authorization statement, Executive summery and table of contents. Authorization Statement : When the report is sent to public organizations, it is common to include a letter of authorization showing the authority for undertaking the research.
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Interpretation of data and report writing Executive Summery : A concise summery of the major findings, conclusions and recommendations. Introduction : Contains problem statement, research objectives and the background. Methodology : Contains Research design, sampling design, data collection, Data analysis and limitations. Conclusions : Contains summery, conclusions and recommendations.
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Design for Exploratory Research : ( Formulative research) Formulating a problem for more precise investigations or developing working hypotheses. Emphasis on discovery of ideas and insights. The design is flexible. The literature survey (what has been researched into so far), Experience survey (Survey of people with practical experience related to the research problem) and analysis of insight stimulating examples (Selected instances related to the research problem and/or unstructured interviews) are used in this design.
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Design for Exploratory Research : ( Formulative research) Useful when areas of investigation are new or vague and important variables are not known. Also it helps in knowing what data may be collected and whether that data will be available. The four techniques in exploratory research design are : 1. Secondary data analysis : Limitations of secondary data : Not specifically collected for the problem in hand now; Outdatedness of the data; insufficient even to formulate a working hypothesis.; Not well organized. Sometimes difficult to locate.
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Design for Exploratory Research : ( Formulative research) 2. Experience survey : Tapping into collective memories and experiences of persons connected with the research problem. like the new comers to the scene, Middle managers, Individuals in transition etc. 3. Focus groups : A panel of people led by a trained moderator who guides the group in an exchange of ideas, feelings and experiences on a specific research problem. 4. Two stage design : The exploration is divided into two stages i.e. defining the research problem and then a research design.
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Design for Descriptive Research : (Diagnostic research) Structured studies with clearly defined hypotheses or research question. There could be variety of objectives like description of a phenomenon or characteristics associated with a subject population (who, what, when, where and how), Estimate of proportion of the population with these characteristics and discovering association amongst different variables (Correlation studies).
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Design for Descriptive Research : (Diagnostic research) In a simpler form of descriptive design, we state something about the size, form, distribution or existence of a variable under study. e.g. students in a B-school qualification, marks obtained , attendance, gender, specialization domain, work experience etc. Further , bivariate relationship can be found out by cross tabulation. e.g. cross tabulation to study correlation between work experience and marks, specialization and attendance, gender and specialization, qualification and marks etc.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
An experiment is a study involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in setting and observe how it affects the participants or subjects being studied. (People or physical entities) The researcher manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is affected by the intervention.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) The variable manipulated by the researcher, thereby causing an effect on the dependent variable. Independent variable is also known as explanatory variable or predictor variable. DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) A measured predicted or otherwise monitored variable expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable. Dependent variable is also known as criterion variable.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
CONTROL GROUP A group that is measured but not exposed to experimental treatment. REPLICATION The process of repeating an experiment with different participant groups, and conditions to determine the average effect of the independent variable across people, situations and times. FIELD EXPERIMENTATION A study of the dependent variable in actual environmental conditions
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Formal Experimental designs Completely randomized design Randomized Block Design Latin Square Design Factorial Design
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Formal Experimental designs
1. Completely Randomized Design : Three randomly selected experiment groups are treated with three levels of treatment with pre and post test observations. For example, if we want to study the effect of change in interest rate on the amount invested in fixed deposits by the investors in a bank, then, EGs are randomly selected investors from the bank. Observations will be made about the change in fixed deposit amount by these investors. Treatment is the change in the interest rate like X1 = 4 %, X2 = 7 % and X3 = 10 %.
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Completely Randomized Design : This experiment can be tabulated as below. EG1 (R) O1 X1 O2 EG2 (R) O3 X2 O4 EG3 (R) O5 X3 O6 This design can help in generalization of observations as EGs are randomly selected. However, since the treatments are different to different groups, the observations are treatment and group specific. Further, there are no control groups to compare the observations after treatment and those without treatment.
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Formal Experimental designs 2. Randomized Block Design In this experiment, the patterns of samples are separately observed to study the difference in effect on each type. In the above experiment, if it is likely that the response of the small investors and the large investors is likely to be different then, separate observations are made for these groups.
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Formal Experimental designs 2. Randomized Block Design
The experiment can be graphically shown as below. Small Investors Large Investors EG ( R ) CG ( R ) EG ( R ) CG ( R ) ( O4) X1 ( O1) X1 ( O2) ( O3) ( O5) ( O6) E1 = (O2 - O3) E2 = (O5 O6)
The experiment can be repeated for X2 and X3 to study the effect of different treatments on the same experiment and control groups or different experiment and control groups.
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3. Latin Square Design : When we want to study the effect of more differentiating factors of the dependent variable and more levels of treatment, then Latin Square Design is used. In the above example, if we want to study the effect of different rates of interests on the type of investors and age of investors, then in this method we can assign one treatment to one of the combination and can make observations. Limitation of this method is that it assumes that there is no interaction between treatment and the blocking factors ( the interest rates and type of investors and age of investors in this example) and hence, the interrelationship cannot be established between them.
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3. Latin Square Design : The experiment can be graphically shown as below. Age Investor
Young
Middle aged
Old
Small Medium Large
R R R
O1 O7
X1 X2
O2 O8
R R
O3 O9
O15
X2 X3 X1
O4
O5
O11
X3 X1
O6
O12 O18
O10 R O16 R
O13 X3
O14 R
O17 X2
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Factorial Design : Two Treatments X = Interest Rate and Y = Deposit amount Investors are grouped according to type of investor and age of investor. The experiment can be graphically shown as below.
Age Investor Small Large
R R
Young
O1 O7 X1 Y1 X2 Y1 O2 O8 R R
Middle aged
O3 O9 X1 Y2 X2 Y2 O4 O10 R R
Old
O5 O11 X1 Y3 X2 Y3 O6 O12
Effect of each of the combination of treatments will be studied for two variables like small and young or Large and middle aged and so on.
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Qualitative & Quantitative research Quantitative approach (Collection of quantitative data and analysis) 1. 2. 3. Inferential To form a database for inferences Experimental Manipulation of variable in controlled environment Simulation Operation of numerical model which represents the structure of a dynamic process.
Qualitative approach Subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Generation of data in non-quantitative form which can not be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Data is collected through focused group interviews, projective techniques and in-depth interviews.
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Qualitative & Quantitative research Causality : A concern with establishing causal connection rather than mere relationship between two variables. The essential element of causality (or causation) is that one variable produces the other variable or forces other variable to occur. In practice, it is not possible to establish such a causality as infinite variables may be responsible for the relationship between these variables. Mills method of agreement and difference : Agreement If descriptive factors A, B, and C, in one group and D,E and C in other group cause X to occur, then by method of agreement, there is a causal relationship between C and X. However, there could be other factors which are not considered or C may cause X in presence of one of the A,B,D & E. Difference If descriptive factors A.B and C in one group cause X but only A and B dont cause X, then by method of difference, there is a causative relationship between C and X. If both methods are used together, then the causative relationship can be asserted.
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Qualitative & Quantitative research Generalisation : Applying findings of a sample group to all similar populations is called generalization. However for the generalization, the sample must be representative of the population and different populations to which the findings are generalized must have similar characteristics. For example, the findings of a survey carried out in Pune city with a representative sample, can be generalized to only those cities which have similar characteristics as Pune. Replication : The process of repeating an experiment with different participant groups, and conditions to determine the average effect of the independent variable across people, situations and times.
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Qualitative & Quantitative research Moving from Investigation Question to Measurement question . Investigation question What do I plan to do with the data ? Description, Exploration, Discovering of difference or finding of relationship ? What data type do I need ? nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio ? What measurement scale should I use ? Dichotomous, Multiple choice, Likert or SD ? Measurement question. Constant sum scales : The constant sum scale question produces what is assumed to be a ratio measurement data. Ratio data is the most powerful of all measurement scales because it is characterized by an absolute zero point and an equal interval scale. Ratio scales are often used to measure the magnitude of a characteristic and scale the differences between alternatives.
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Qualitative & Quantitative research Ratio scales are often used to measure the magnitude of a characteristic and scale the differences between alternatives. Constant sum data is obtained by asking the respondent to "assign 100 points (or percent) across the answer options so as to reflect your degree of preference, importance, or other evaluation." E.g. Assign points out of 100 to the criteria used for selecting a restaurant for dining.
Criteria Food quality Cleanliness Ambiance Polite service Location Price
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Points (Out of 100)
Graphic rating scales : Respondents rate items by placing a mark on a line. The line is usually labeled at each end. There are sometimes a series of numbers, called scale points, (say, from zero to 100) under the line. Scoring and codification is difficult. Paired comparison When there are more than two options , the respondent gives his preference of options for pairs made out of those options. Thus he has to prefer between, a and b , b and c, c and d, a and c, a and d, b and d. By tabulation and analysis the best preference can be found out.
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Forced ranking : Ranking the features/attributes in order of preference. 1 for the most important, 2 for the next and so on.
Criteria Food Quality Cleanliness Ambiance Polite service Location Price Rank
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To know and understand a phenomenon.

Increased need for more and better information.

Availability of better techniques and tools for this purpose.

Discipline in processing information to avoid Information Overload.

Qualitative approach Subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.

Hypothesis testing Experimental intervention research Cause-effect study Cause-

Year of study 1 for first year 2 for second year 1 1 2 1 3 2 4 2 5 1 1 G

Attendance P = Below 20 %, L= 21to50 % A=51 to 75 %, G= above 75 % 2 G 3 P 4 L 5 A

Respondents Assigning symbol

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

Purposive sampling like quota or judgment sampling

Unrestricted sampling Convenience sampling.

Restricted sampling Purposive sampling like quota or judgment sampling.

Female No. 3 35 5 3 8 6 40 % 5.00 58.33 8.33 5.00 13.33 10.00 100.00

Small Medium Large

Points (Out of 100)

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