WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research:  As a scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of facts that links mans speculation with reality is a systematic inquiry utilizing disciplined methods to solved problems. In nursing, aims to view of understanding effective nursing care and promoting health care as a system.

Aims/Objective of Research
 To describe a phenomenon relating to nursing profession by defining, observation and documentation  To explore phenomenon and look for variables affecting on it and determine the assumed and presumed relationship among and between the said variables  To explain and seek clarification for better understanding of a prevailing situation  To predict and control to minimize the impact of the situation

NUR SING RESEARCH:

- Is a systematic search for knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession. - It includes the breadth and depth of the discipline of nursing such as the FF:  Rehabilitative, therapeutic and preventive aspects of nursing;  Preparation of personnel involved in the total nursing sphere, such as nursing education  Preparation of practitioners in nursing

Nursing Research
- A methodical/thorough scrutiny of

observable event or fact to patient, staff nurses, health workers and many others which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of phenomena that binds/connects nurses thoughts with actuality

Nursing Research
 Is a systematic inquiry designed to:  Develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession  Guide nursing practice  Improve the health and quality of life of the nurses/client.

Role of Nurses in Research

To discover new knowledge for the development and improvement of skills, behavior and practice for better quality life

Goal of Nursing Research

- Is to provide a basis for decisiondecisionmaking at all levels of the profession Schlotfeld states that Nursing research develops and refines nursing theories that will serve as guide to nursing practice that can be organized into a body of knowledge

Evolution of Nursing

Research

The Hx of Evolution of Professional nursing was divided into three Phases

by Simon & Henderson:

st 1

Phase - Late 1800s

 The trained nurse was a product of a hospital

nd 2

Phase from 1900 to 1930

 Marked the beginning of nursing education in institutions of higher learning, while hospital was being expanded

rd 3

Phase from 1930 to the present

 researcher are looking forward for the purpose of improving quality care and nursing education

 Then they turned to educational research to apply some of its method and aims while research on industrial mgt helped in the scientific utilization of personnel  Florence Nightingale 1st nursing researcher  Lydia Hall presents the three aspect of nursing  In the later part people applied to the medical research to art of the 19th century nurses determine procedures and nursing treatment

Role of Research in Improving Quality of Life

 New knowledge can result in development or improvement of skills, behavior or practices can result in improved performance & better service delivery  Newly discovered or developed technology can lead to the development of new tools or devices

The Importance of Research to the Practice of Nursing

1. To expand comfort zone by offering creative approaches to the health problem of the patient 2. Designing new and innovative programs that make a difference in the health status of the patient 3. Provides a specialized scientific knowledge base that empowers the nursing profession to anticipate and meet these needs constantly shifting challenges and maintain our societal relevance

Aims/Objective of Research
-To describe a phenomenon relating to nursing profession by defining, observation and documentation  To explore phenomenon and look for variables affecting on it and determine the assumed and presumed relationship among and between the said variables  To explain and seek clarification for better understanding of a prevailing situation  To predict and control to minimize the impact of the situation

Role of Nurses in Research

 To discover new knowledge for the development and improvement of skills, behavior and practice for better quality life  New knowledge can result in development or improvement of skills, behavior or practices can result in improved performance & better service delivery
 Newly discovered or developed technology can lead to the development of new tools or devices

Importance of Research to Nursing Education

- Can benefit from using, when appropriate tools and techniques developed for educational research. - Provide a basis for decision making at all levels of the profession. - The development and refinement of nursing theories which serve as guide to nursing practice and which can be organized into a body of scientific nursing knowledge.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH:
 Theory guides practice and research  Practice enables testing of theory and generates questions for research  Research contributes to theorytheorybuilding and establishing practice guidelines

SIGNIFICANCE OF NURSING RESEARCH:

 To measure outcome of nursing interventions  To adopt an evidenced-based practice or evidenceduse of the best clinical evidence in making patient care decisions  To develop and validate nursing theories which serve as guide to nursing practice  To document social relevance and effectiveness of nursing practice

Function of Research:
Help us answer questions, solve problem & make decisions Enables us to see & understand how & why a situation or a problem exist Help us discover new things & ideas Allow us to validate existing theories or generate new ones Identify & understand the causes & effect of a situation or a phenomenon

Uses of Research as a Scientific Process

 Determine/describe an existing situation ( situation analysis)  Describe a population (people, objects, institution)  Compare two conditions or group of population  Determine existence, degree, or nature of relationship between two or more factors  Evaluate &compare effectiveness of an intervention, tx or exposure  Predict the value of a certain characteristics

Criteria of Good Research

   
Clarity and relevance Researchability/feasibility Researchability/feasibility of the problem Adequacy and relevance of the related literature Match between the purpose, design and methods  Suitability of the sampling procedure and the sample  Correctness of the analytical procedure  Clarity of the finding

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

- N- Noble
U - Understanding and caring to patients R Respectful S Sincere to his work E Excellent in performing his duty R Research-oriented ResearchE Efficient S Scientific E - Effective A Active R - Resourceful C - Creative H - Honest

CHARACTERISITICS OF THE RESARCHER

Intellectual curiosity Prudence Healthy criticism Intellectual honesty Intellectual creativity

Characteristic of Research
 Empirical based on direct experience or
observation by the researcher. The collection of data relies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theory

 Logical based on valid procedure and

principle. Scientific investigation is done in an orderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on the results

 Cyclical it start with a problem and ends

with a problem

Characteristic of Research

 Analytical research utilizes a

proven analytical procedures in collecting the data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental or case study  Methodical - research is conducted in an orderly manner without bias using systematic procedure

Characteristic of Research

 Replicability the research designs and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results

 Critical research exhibits

careful and precise judgment

Ethical Consideration of Research

 Voluntary participation  To know & understand the purpose & the result of the study  To demand that the researcher assumes full responsibility of the pursuit of the study  To claim any reward that is due  To be informed the result of the study & how these will be used  free from any physical and psychological harm  Anonymity & confidentiality  Consent must be obtained

OVERVIEW
OF THE

RESEARCH PROCESS

MAJOR STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS:

 Pnemonic = C DEAD  PHASE 1 CONCEPTUAL PHASE  PHASE2 DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE  PHASE 3 EMPERICAL PHASE  PHASE 4 ANALYTIC PHASE  PHASE 5 DISSEMINATION PHASE

PHASE 1 THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE

 Step 1 formulating and delimiting the problem  Start with selection of broad areas of interest to the development of specific questions that are amenable to empirical in inquiry A. Define source of topics B. Define the purpose of research C. Review of Related Literature D. Formulate the theoretical framework

Formulation of the Problem cont.

E. Delineate the population(s) to be studies F. State the Specific Research Problem G. State the Assumptions H. State the scope and Limitation of the problem

In Developing Research Problem, the Researcher Should Consider:

 Substantive Dimension Is this research question of theoritical or practical significance?  Methodological Dimensions how can this questions be studied?  Practical Dimension Are adequate resources available to conduct the study?  Ethical dimension can this question be dimension studied in a manner that is consistent with the guidelines for the protection of human subjects

 For research findings to be useful, they should be an extension of previous knowledge and theory as well as a guide for future research activity  Literature Review is the critical summary of a research topic on a topic of interest generally prepared to put a research problem in context or to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify a new investigation

Steps 2 Reviewing the Review of Literature

Steps 3 Developing a theoretical framework

 When research is performed in the context of a theoretical framework, it is more likely that its finding will have a longlong-lasting significance and utility

Step 4 Formulating a hypothesis

A.Hypothesis  a statement of the researchers expectations concerning relationships between the variables under investigation; it is a prediction of expected outcome

Hull hypothesis
 Hull hypothesis statement that there
is no actual relationship between variables and that any such observed relationship is a result of chance

 Alternative hypothesis
statement that there is a relationship between the variables under study

B. Problem Statement
- Identifies

the phenomenon under investigation and give direction to the project

Phase 2
The Design
and Planning Phase

Step - 5. Selecting a Research Design - Is the overall plan for the method of obtaining answer to the question being studied and how to handle some of the difficulties encountered during the research process

Step 6 Identifying the population to be studied

a.Population aggregate or totality a.Population

of all the objects, subjects or members that conform to a designated set of specifications

b.Sample a subset of a population b.Sample

selected to participate in a research study

Step 7 Specifying Methods to collect the Research Data

Approaches of data collection: a. Biophysiological measurement data collected through physical examination, anthropometric measurements and laboratory studies among others b. Self-Report subjects are directly asked about Selftheir feelings, behaviors, attitudes and personal traits c. Observational Techniques researcher collects data by observing peoples behavior and recording relevant aspect of it

Level of Measurement:
1. Nominal measurement the lowest level of measurement, basic requirements for measuring are that the classifications must be mutually exclusive( each subject must be classifiable only into one and only one categories) and collectively exhaustive Ex: Sex a person is either male of female only; smoking status smoker or non-smoker( no nonsuch things as paartial smpkers because this person will still be categorized as a smoker)

Level of Measurement: 2.Ordinal Measurement

this permits the sorting of objects on

the basis of their standing relative to each other on a specific attribute; attributes are rank-ordered according rankto a set criterion; average is meaningless with rank-order measures rankEx: frequency counts

Level of Measurement:
3. Interval Measurement when the researcher can specify both the rankrank-ordering of the objects on an attribute and the distance between those objects; Zero is arbitrary(no real zero); interval between numbers can be added or subtracted Ex: a temperature of 60 F; However it cannot be said that 60 F is twice as hot as 30 F

Level of Measurement:
4. Ratio Measurement the highest level of
measurements; it has a rational Zero point; it provides information concerning rank ordering of objects on a critical attribute, the intervals between objects, and the absolute magnitude of the attribute for the object; all arithmetic operation are permissible Ex: A person with a weight of 150 lbs is said to be twice as heavy as a person who weighs 75 lbs

Steps 8 Designing the Sampling Plan - Devising the sampling plan includes determining the sampling method, sample size and selection procedures for recruiting the subjects

Step 9 Finalizing and Reviewing the research Plan - Review of the research plan may be done by the faculty adviser, funding source or special committee for ethics for its contents, design, methodology, feasibility and ethical considerations

Step 10 Conducting the Pilot study and making revisions

a. Pilot Study sometime called feasibility study, is a small-scale version or trial run smallof the major study b. Pretesting of the questionnaires is done to know whether the respondents understand the question and the directions or if they find certain questions objectionable

C. PHASE 3 THE EMPERICAL PHASE

Step 11 Collecting the Data Step12 Preparing the data for analysis
a. Coding the process of translating verbal data into categories or numerical forms b. Transferring written document into computer files

Phase - 4
The Analytic Phase

Step 13 - Analyzing the Data A. Qualitative Analysis integration and

synthesis of narrative, non-numerical data for the nonpurpose of discovering important underlying dimensions and patterns of relationships

B. Quantitative Analysis analysis of

numerical data through statistical procedures for the purpose of describing phenomena or assessing the magnitude and reliability of relationships among them

C. Statistical Analysis the organization and

analysis of quantitative data using statistical procedures, including both descriptive and inferential statistic

Step 14 Interpreting the Data a. Interpretation the process of making a.Interpretation

sense of the results and examining the implications of the findings within a broader context( generalizability) generalizability)

b. Interpretation of Quantitative b.Interpretation Studies - involve the translation of

statistical findings into practical and conceptual meaning

D. PHASE 5

THE Dissemination Phase

Step 15 Communicating the findings

- Preparation of a research reports that could be easily understood by readers

STEP 16 UTILIZING THE FINDINGS

- Facilitated by including in the report recommendations on how the results of the study could be incorporated into practice of nursing and disseminating the findings to practicing nurses and nurses in other fields

TYPES/Methods
OF

RESEARCH

According to Different Point of View

1. BASIC research designed to produce knowledge or to construct a theory - The goal: is to fill in the gaps of nursing knowledge 2. APPLIED research designed to find a solution for an immediate practical problem, truth is adapted to daily situation - The Goal: to identify a solution to an immediate problem

According to Approach: TWO CATEGORIES

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE
- Use an emergent design - Means that the design emerges as researchers make ongoing decision as the study unfolds - Such decisions involve how data can be best obtained, from whom to obtain data, how to schedule data collection, and how long should each data collection session lasts

QUALITATIVE - Research studies are rooted in the discipline of: a. Anthropology a.Anthropology b. Sociology b.Sociology c. psychology

Major Types of
Qualitative Design and

Its Comparison

Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative Design

Strategy Types of Research Paradigm Method Other data Sources

Phenome Meaning nology questions eliciting the essence of experience

Philosop hy (Phenom enology)

Audio taped conversati ons Written anecdotes of personal experienc es

Phenom enologic al literature Philoso phical Reflecti ons Poetry Art

Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative Design

Strateg y Types of Research Paradigm Method Other data Sources

Ethno Descriptive graph questions of values, beliefs, y practices as cultural group

Anthropo Unstructur lopgy ed (culture) interviews Participant s observation Field notes Sociolog Interviews y (tape (symboli recorded) cinteracti onism)

Document Records Photography Maps Genealogies Social network diagrams Participants observation Memo Diary

Groun d Theor y

Process questions experience overtime or change, may have stages and

Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative Design

Strategy Types of Research Paradigm Method Other data Sources

Ethnomethodo Question logy/Discourse regarding Analysis verbal interactions and dialogue Participants Observation Behavioral questions - Macro Behavioral questionsMicro

Semiotics

Dialogue(Audi o and Video recording

Observation Field notes

Anthropology

Obervation Field notes

Interviews Photography

Qualitative Ethology

Zoology

Observation

Videotape Note-taking

Phenomenology
- A rigorous, critical, systematic and holistic investigation of phenomena or experience; investigates subjective phenomena in the belief that essential truths about reality are grounded in lived experience

Purpose:
- to explicate the essence or meaning or

structure of the lived experience of a phenomena in search for meaning that deals with: a. Identification of the essence of the Phenomenon b. Identification of accurate description thru everyday lived experience

Six Core Steps:

1. Descriptive Phenomenology direct exploration, analysis and description of phenomena, free of presupposition 2. Phenomenology of essences probing through data to identify common themes or essences 3. Phenomenology of Appearances gives attention to the way phenomena appear 4. Constitutive Phenomenology Process in which phenomena advance in the consciousness

Six Core Steps:

5. Reductive Phenomenology researcher identifies all personal biases, beliefs and assumptions 6. Hermeneutic phenomenology Identifying the relationship between knowledge and context :

Ex: A study of the Meaning of Passing the Local Nursing Board Examination to different Types of Board Exam takers,
Ex

The investigator may look into the meaning of passing the nursing board examination to the first-time takers as compared to those who have taken it more than once or its meaning to the new college graduates versus those who have nursing as their second course

Grounded Theory
- A form of field research Purpose: - To develop a theory about dominant social processes rather than describe a particular phenomena

Five Basic Characteristics

1. Conceptual Framework is generated from data, not previous studies 2. Attempts to discover dominant processes in the social scene, not to describe the unit under investigation 3. All data are compared with all other data 4. Researcher modifies data collection according to advancing theory and ask more penetrating questions as needed 5. Investigator examines data as they arrive few thoughts concerning the research report from the beginning of the study

Ethnography
- Work of describing culture a. Ethnographer uses the (emic)insiders view (emic)insiders or the way the members of a specific culture envision their world b. Broad types of information sought:  Cultural behavior what the members do  Cultural artifact what the members make and use  Cultural speech what the members say

Ethnography
c. Sources of data include observations, in-depth ininterviews, records, charts and other physical evidences like photographs, diaries, letters

Fundamental Characteristics:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Fieldwork Cyclic nature of data collection and analysis Focus on culture Researcher as instrument Cultural immersion Tension between researcher as researcher and researcher as cultural member

Ex: Pregnancy, Labor, Childbirth and Puerperium Practices of Mangyans Families

Historical Research
- Used in the belief that something from the past will explain something in the present - Formulates a thesis about the relationship among ideas, events, institutions or people in the past

Methodological stages
1. Selecting a topic and appropriate theoritical framework 2. Finding and accessing resources 3. Analysis and synthesis of data 4. Interpretation of data 5. Reporting of data

Ex: A study on the evolution of the nursenurseresearcher role in the Philippines setting

Action Research
- Also known as cooperative inquiry, action inquiry, participatory action research, community-based action communityresearch, collaborative research, participative inquiry - A form of social research involving the process of change based on professional, organizational or community action

Fundamental Characteristic:
1. Context-bound Context2. Process seeks to have full engagement by the researcher and participant(collaborative) 3. Researcher pay attention to process and how it impacts the lives of others Focus on action or change 4. Stakeholders decide to implement action or change Ex: Improving healthcare access among families living in the farflung areas of Nagcarlan Laguna

Triangulation
- A type of research that uses a combination of more than one research strategy in a single investigation; done to ensure completeness of findings or to confirm findings - This reveals the varied dimensions of a phenomenon and helps create a more accurate description of it
Ex: A study to explore the early Socialization of Filipino nurse practitioner in the US health care system - Data is gathered through in-depth interview of nurse inpractitioner and their preceptors

Principles of Sampling in Qualitative Research

1. Appropriateness derived from the identification and utilization of the participants who can best provide information on the research according to the theoretical requirement of the study 2. Adequacy there is enough data to develop a full and rich description of the phenomena preferably, that the stage of saturation has been reached and that no new data will emerge by conducting further interviews

Quantitative

Research

Quantitative Research
- Quantitative research design are fairly structured - Before the data is gathered, researcher would usually specify the following first: nature of an intervention, methods to be used to control an extraneous variables, timing of data collection, study site setting, even the information to be provided to the participants - Modification to the research design is rarely done once data collection transpires

Summary Table of Quantitative research Designs

Dimension Degree of Structure Designs Structured flexible Between subjects Within subjects Major Features Designs is before data collection Designs evolves during data collection Subjects in groups that are being compared are different people

Type of group comparison

Time frame

Cross sectional Longitudinal

Data collected at one point in time Data collected at two or more points in time over an extended period

Summary Table of Quantitative research Designs

Dimension Control over Independent variables Designs Experimental Major Features Manipulation of IV, control group, randomization -Manipulation of IV with either control group or randomization -Manipulation of IV with either control group or randomization; limited control over extraneous variable - No manipulation of IV Study begins with DV and looks backward for cause or antecedent - Study begins with IV and looks forward for the effect

Quasi-experimental

Pre-experimental

Non-experimental Measurement of independent and dependent variables Retrospective

Prospective

According to
Time Element

CrossCross-Sectional Design
involves collection of data at one point in time Appropriate fro describing the status of phenomena or for describing relationships among phenomena at the fixed point in time Used also to infer causal or temporal chain when: - There is evidence or logical reasoning to ensure that one variable preceded the other(ex.
In a study on the effects of LBW on morbidity among preschool children) - There is strong theoretical framework guiding analysis

Advantages: Advantages: Practical, economical, easy to manage

Disadvantages: - Problem to infer change and trends over time Ex: a study on the nursing students professionalism as they progress through 4th year course it is necessary to survey members of different year level at one point in time and compare their degree of professionalism as they progress from the 1st year to the 4th year

Longitudinal Design
- Designed to collect data at more than one point in time over an extended period a. Trend Studies- permit researchers to examine Studiespatterns and rates of change over time and to predict future direction on some phenomena Ex: Trend studies have been used in analyzing the number of students entering nursing and forecasting future supplies of nursing personnel in the Philippines

Longitudinal Design
b. COHORT a particular type of trend study in which a cohort (specific sub population) are examined over a period of time
Ex: A cohort of the BSN graduates who took the PNLE in June 2006 may be periodically surveyed to determine the employment unemployment pattern

Longitudinal Design
c. Cross-sequential design or cohort Crosssequential design or longitudinal cohort comparison design A type of cohort are studied longitudinally so that both changes over time and generational diference can be detected

d. Panel Studies
- panel

refers to the sample of subjects providing data; these same people are studied at two or more points in time so that researchers could identify individuals who may or may not have changed and to examine the characteristics that differentiate the two groups

FollowFollow-Up Studies Similar to panel studies though these are undertaken to determine the development of individuals who have specified condition

According to control over

Independent Variables

EXPERIMENTAL
- Considered the ideal of some forms of intervention and offers the possibility of greater control over extraneous variables True Experiments are also known as the most powerful method available for testing hypotheses of cause and effect relationships between variables

QuasiQuasi-Experimental
Like true experiment this involve manipulation of an IV although it lacks at least one of the other two properties that characterize tru experiments Advantage: Practical, feasible and generalizable Disadvantage: its validity in making causal inferences is questionable. Its hall mark is the effort to compensate for the absence of either randomization or control group

Three General Types/Categories of Research

1. Descriptive Research - Finds answer to the question WHO,

WHAT, WHERE, & HOW - Describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of specified aspect or factors
Ex: The Mgt Style of Sch. Administrator in Tomas del Rosario School School Tardiness & Absenteesims among level IV student of TRC in clinical area area

2. Correlational/Explanatory/Association Research Correlational/Explanatory/Association

- Attempt to explain the possible factors related to a problem which have been observed in descriptive study
Ex: Knowledge about DM & Compliance with Diet, Exercise & Medical Regimen among DM Patient Relationship between Socioeconomic factors & Absenteeism among Level IV student of TRC of Balanga Balanga

3. Intervention or Experimental Research

- It studies the Cause & Effect relationship between certain factor on a certain phenomenon under controlled conditions The Effect of Cooperative Learning Approach on the performance in RLE of Level IV Nursing student of TRC in Balanga Balanga The Effect of Effleurage Massage on Overt Pain Reaction of Selected Post Operative Patient in ICMC Balanga City: Basis for Information Dissemination

Other Dichotomies of Research/ Classification (Jackson 1995, Mercado, 1994) 1. Pure Basic vs Applied

Pure basic attempts to describe an existing

situation/or explain certain patterns of behavior using or both qualitative & quantitative Ex: Factors Associated with Tardiness & Absenteeism among Level IV Nursing student

Applied Research
- Formulation or the refinement of theory, aims to see an immediate solution to a problem

Ex: The Effect of Gender Sensitivity Training on Mens Involvement in Child Care Remedial Teaching: Its effect on the performance of Slow Learners

2. Exploratory vs Explanatory
Exploratory are designed to describe an
existing problem situation - Examine the underlying factors that contribute to the emergence of the problem, the nature of which is not yet well known Ex: Menopause: Working Womens perception, Experiences & coping strategies Domestic Violence: Ideas, experiences,& needs of married working men in Balanga City

Explanatory Research
- Explain a relationship between which may have already been identified in exploratory studies, & why the relationship exists - Seek more specific answer to why & how questions Ex: Relationship Between Alcohol Intake & Domestic Violence among Married men in the Municipality of Balanga Balanga

3. Quantitative vs Qualitative

Quantitative It measures the

number of respondent or objects possessing a particular characteristic, requires statistical analysis of data & testing of hypotheses. Ex: Health seeking behavior & health status of retired school teacher in Balanga Bataan

Qualitative
- Emphasizes verbal descriptions & explanation of human behavior & practices
- Ex: Experiences & Needs of Victims of Child Abuse Among Elementary Pupils in Public School in Balanga City - Menopause: Womens Perceptions & Experiences"

EXPERIMENTAL
 Used to determine the effectiveness of a Tx or an intervention or the cause & effect relationship of certain phenomena under controlled condition  Is a scientific investigation that makes observations and collects data according to explicit criteria  The subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the experimental group & to the control group & both are exposed to similar conditions except for the intervention

Three Identifying Properties:

1.Randomization 2.Control Manipulation 3.Manipulation

Randomization/random assignment to group - Involves the distribution of subjects to either the experimental or control group on a purely random basis - Each subject has an equal and known probability of being assigned to any group - Allows elimination of any systematic bias in the groups with respect to attributes that may effect the dependent variables being studied

CONTROL
- The introduction of one or more constants into the experimental situation. - Is acquired by manipulating the causal or independent variable, by randomly assigning subjects to a group - In experimental research the comparison group is the control group, or the group that receives the usual treatment.

MANIPULATION - Researcher doing something to at least some of the involved subjects. - The independent variable, is manipulated by giving it ( the experimental treatment) to some participants in the study and not to others or by giving different amounts of it to different groups.

Manipulation
- these allows for other explanations of the phenomenon to be ruled out and thereby provide strengths of the designs for testing cause and effect relationship.

Types

of

Experimental
:

Designs

Designs

a. SOLOMON FOUR-GROUPS FOURDESIGN -more complex experimental designed - Has two groups that are identical to those used in the classical experimental design, plus two additional group, an experimental group, afterafter-group and a control group. - These last two groups helps to rule out testing threats to internal validity that the before and after groups may experience

b. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS - The Classic design - Subject have been assigned randomly to the experimental or the control group. - The experimental treatment is given only group, to those in the experimental group, and the pretests and posttests are those measurements of the dependent variables that are made before and after the experimental treatment is performed

c. AFTER-ONLY Design AFTERCalled the posttest-only control group posttestdesign Composed of two randomly assigned group The independent variable is introduced to the experimental group and not to the control group Useful when testing effects are expected to be a major problem and the number of available subject is too limited to use a Solomon four group design.

2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL QUASI- If full experimental control is not possible. - The researcher initiates an experimental treatment but some characteristic of a true experiment is lacking. - The basic problem with the quasi approach is a weakened confidence in making causal assertions.

Types of Quasi-Exp.

Designs:

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

 Looks like exactly true experimental design except that the subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.  Commonly used in nursing research studies conducted in field setting  The basic problem with the design is the weakened confidence the researcher can have in assuming that the experimental and comparison groups are similar at the beginning of the study.

 Threats to internal validity, such as selection, maturation, testing and mortality are possible .

b. After-Only Nonequivalent Control AfterGroup Design - Makes the assumption that the two groups are equivalent and comparable before the introduction of the independent variables - Similar to the after-only experimental afterdesign, but randomization is not used to assign subjects to groups.

c. Time Series Design

- Only one group is available is to study that group over a longer period. - Useful for determining trends - Example: The difference overtime of Infants who were irritable Versus Infants who were nonirritable nonirritable

Non Experimental Designs

- Are used in studies in which the researcher wishes to construct a picture of a phenomenon or explore events, people, or situations as they naturally occur - The independent variable have already occurred - The researcher explores the relationship or differences - Requires a clear, concise problem statement that is based on a theoretical framework

3. Descriptive

Studies:

1. Descriptive/Exploratory Survey Studies

Collect detailed descriptions of existing variables and used the data to justify and assess current conditions and practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving health care practices. To search for accurate information about the characteristics of particular subjects, groups, institution or situation. The types of variables of interest can be classified as opinion, attitudes, or facts
Can be collected by either a questionnaire or an interview

2. EVALUATION AND EXPERIMENTATION

 Utilization of scientific research methods and procedures to evaluate a program, treatment, practice, or policy  It uses analytical means to document the worth of an activity.  Uses both experimental, quasi and nonnonexperimental designs for the purpose of determining the effect or outcome of a program.  Example: The effectiveness of the nurse special care unit

3. Assessment
- Describe the status of some phenomena at a particular time - It describe without value judgment a situation that prevails, it attempts no explanation of underlying reasons & make no recommendation for action

4. Descriptive Research


Sometimes known as nonnonexperimental, correlational, or ex-post correlational, exfacto, replication & secondary analysis which deals with the relationships between variables, the testing hypothesis and the development of generalizations, principles or theories that have universal validity

Types of

Descriptive

Research

1.Correlational Studies
examine the relationship between two or more variables - Ex: Concern about Analgesics Among Patient and Family Caregivers in a Hospice Setting
- To

2. Ex Post Facto Studies

after the fact also known causalas causal-comparative studies - Explain causality or the factors that determine the occurrence of events or conditions.
- From

5. Prediction

Studies

5. Prediction studies
- Researcher at times want to make forecast or prediction about how patients will respond to an intervention or a disease process or how successful individual will be in a particular setting or field of specialty - Ex. Which demographic and psychosocial variables predicted adjustment in women with SLE. - The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of psychosocial variables on the adjustment of women with SLE.

6. DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
- Concerned not only with the existing status and interrelationship of phenomena but also with changes that result from elapsed time

Types of
Developmental Studies

CrossCross-Sectional Studies
- Examine data at one point in time, the data collected on only one occasion with the same subjects rather than on the same subjects at several point in time - Ex: Meleis and Co. studied the nature of womens work environment as perceived by a group by Makati Clerical Workers.

2. Longitudinal Studies
- Collect data from the same group at different points in time. - Costly in terms of money, effort, time

7. Retrospective and Prospective studies

- Are essentially the same as ex post facto studies. Mainly used by epidemiologists.

8.Historical Research method

 The meaningful record of human achievement, enable one to understand the present and, to some extent, to predict the future  Is the application of scientific method to the description & analysis of past events  sources: unconscious testimony, relics, research reports, recording

The Basic Components

Of

Research Report

1. TITLE OF THE STUDY

- The title embodies substantive words or phrases that describe the research study - Title must be clearly stated, concise and consist of not more than 15 words if possible. - The variable of the research are reflected in the title, the relationship among variables and its proposed target population Ex: Self concept and Professional Attributes of Staff Nurses in Relation to Patients Satisfaction Index

2. INTRODUCTION
- Consist of a brief discussion of the rationale and background of the problem or subject of inquiry - The introduction serves as a springboard for the statement of the problem - It should stimulate the interest of the reader and set the pace for the presentation of the study

Introduction Cont.
It includes the following: a. The context of the problem b. Authoritative viewpoints on the problem c. The researchers interest in working on the problem d. The purpose of the study in relation to the problem

3. Statement of the Problem - It expressed in precise terms as the subject of inquiry - It reflect the population and the major variables of the study which are subject to empirical testing

RESEARCH PROCESS
- Is a system of chronological events to be done in order to have a scientific inquiry. Following Process/flow: 1.Selecting a problem 1.Selecting 2.Literature search 2.Literature 3.Constructing theoretical and conceptual 3.Constructing framework, review of related literature, relevant research finding 4.HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION 4.HYPOTHESIS 5.Constructing operational definition 5.Constructing 6.Manipulating and controlling variables 6.Manipulating

Research process
7. Constructing research instrument
8. Validating research instrument 9. Constructing research design 10. Data Gathering & analysis 11. Findings 12. Conclusion and recommendation

Research problem
- in form of question serves as the focus of the investigation of unknown characteristics of a population or factors that explain the presence or occurrence of a phenomenon. - A problem is anything which gives a person a feeling of discomfort - A problem could be a state of affairs that needs to be changed or anything that is not working as expected - For researcher a problem could be conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, question for which they want answer or information gaps they wish to fill or theories they want to validate

IDENTIFYING A PROBLEM
Initially, a research problem is stated in a form of a question, which serve as the focus of the investigation - Not all problems requires research - Following condition for researchable problem: a. There is a perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be b. There are two or more plausible reasons for the discrepancy

What is Researchable Question?

- A question that will provide answer, that explain, describe, identify, substantiate, predict. - If the research question were about an event, directive questions would ask: What happened? When did it happen? What way did it happen/ Whom did it happen? What difference did it make, how that it happened?

Basic Component of Question

1. STEM 2. TOPIC RULES IN RESEARCH QUESTION: 1. Start with simple question 2. Action-oriented Action3. Ask active question Ex: What are the reaction of woman to mastectomy 4. Working definition of terms

Three major Level of Questions

- Each level based on the amount of knowledge and theory about the topic under study. Level 1 there is little to no literature available on either the topic or on the population and the purpose is to describe what is found as it exist naturally. Ex: What are the eating problem of retarded children? What are the characteristic of suicidal patients? What are the spiritual needs of patients?

Level 11 Question
- Build on the result of studies at the 1st level - When topic has been thoroughly described, it is possible to identify measurable variables - The next step is to look for relationship between these variables - The stem question ask, What is the relationship? and the topic contains 2 or more variables - The answer to the question is determined b y the statistical significance of the relationship between the variables. - Ex: What is the relationship between relaxation and pain in postoperative patient?

Level 111 Question

- Begins at a significant relationship between variables - At level 111, the question asks Why this relationship exists, and you must provide answer, which always begins with because - All level 111 questions leads to experimental design - Ex: Why does satisfaction increase with positive attitudes toward self-care self-

Example of possible research question

1. What problem do children of separated parents encounter and how do the children cope with these problem? What goes on in a government office in a typical week? or How do government employees spend a typical day in the office? Do mothers who have attended health education classes have better health care mgt practices than those who have not? Does TV viewing affect a childs school performance? What are the perceptions of college students regarding the granting of emergency power to the president in times of crisis? To what extent do students use the internet? Does the students use of the internet affect their performance in school

2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

EXAMPLE OF A NON-RESEARCHABLE PROBLEM NON-

Situation: Situation: despite free tuition, many high school student in a public school in Province X have dropped out. Records show than more than 50% of the student have already dropped out before the middle of the school year (what is) What should be: Student are expected to be: finish high school because it is free. They should not drop out (What should be). On the contrary, a big number of students dropped out (Discrepancy)

Research Question: why do students drop out? Question:

What factors contribute to the high drop out rate? Possible Answer: Fear of being caught in crossfire Answer: between military and rebel groups Comment: Comment: there have been encounters between the military and rebel group and many civilians have been caught in the crossfire. It seems clear that the dropping out of the student is due to the armed encounters in the area. If they go to school, they might die, so parents keep them out to school until peace and order situation in the area returns to normal.

Example of a Researchable Problem

Situation:despite Situation:despite free tuition, many high school student in a public school in Province X have dropped out. Records show than more than 50% of the student have already dropped out before the middle of the school year (what is) What should be: Student are expected to finish be: high school because it is free. They should not drop out (What should be). On the contrary, a big number of students dropped out (Discrepancy)

Research Question: why do students drop out? Question:

What factors contribute to the high drop out rate? Possible Answer: there are many possible Answer: reasons why students drop out. Among the possible reasons are: financial difficulties, far distance of students houses from school, students/ lack of interest to study, and poor health. Comments since there are a number of possible reasons for the dropping out of students despite free tuition, the problem is researchable. Research can determine the existence and extent of relationship between the identified possible factors and the students decision to drop out of school or to stay. Research can determine the relative contribution of each factors in the students decision to drop out.

Defining Research Problem

- Once the problem identified, it should be then defined - Problem Definition explains the existence and seriousness of the problem - It shows evidences that prove the problem really exist, that is serious and widespread - Identifies the elements of a broader problem that are to be focus of the research activities - Must show that the problem needs serious attention - The researcher should present a valid justification for the conduct of the study - The problem definition must show that the answers to the research questions are not yet clear or available - Definition should present relevant data from service statistics and related literature

Following Question in Defining a Problem 1. Does the problem really exist? What are the evidences of the problems existence? 2. Is the problem serious? Who and How many are affected by it? 3. What places are affected? How widespread is it? 4. How often does the problem occur?

Things to Remember when Defining a Problem 1. Review of relevant literature and previous studies on the problem 2. Examine current available data/statistic 3. Seek educated opinions from persons concerned with the problem 4. Determine the probable reasons for the existence of the problem from social, economic, or other theories that may explain the existence of the problem and the possible connection between the problem and other factors.

How to determine if the Problem is Relevant a. Will answer to the research question/s help advance knowledge? b. Can answers to the research questions/s help in improving practices/ behavior/performance? c. Will answers to the research problem improve human conditions?

Example of a Relevant Problem

computerResearch Problem: The effect of computer-asssisted Problem: instruction on the students Achievement in Medical Surgical concept? 1. Will the answer to the research question help advance knowledge? Yes. A finding shows that the computer-assisted instruction computersignificantly improves or does not improve achievement in Medical/Surgical Concept comprises new knowledge 2. Can answer to the research question helps in improving practices/ behavior/performance? Yes: Yes: Positive findings suggest that the teachers must use the computer as an instructional device 3. Will answers to the research problem improve human conditions? Yes: Yes: if the adoption of computer-assisted instruction leads to computerimproved learning, students will acquire better skills. With better skills, they will have better chances of getting employed to have a better quality life.

Example of a Feasible Problem computerResearch Problem: The effect of computerProblem: assisted instruction on the students Achievement in Medical/Surgical concept? Comments: Comments: instruction in the experimental group is computercomputer-assisted, while that in the control group is not. The teacher in the experimental group can be trained to use the computer in teaching M/S. The experiment can be carried out even if only one computer is available in the classroom. This can be provided by the institution

Example of a Problem that is not Feasible

Research Problem:" The effect on Problem:" Achievement of Providing each student a Microcomputer in their M/S class Comment: It might be worth knowing if computercomputer-based M/S instruction can improve students/ achievement in the subject but giving each student a computer would be very costly and not be afforded by most schools.

Example of a Problem which is Not Clear Research Problem: Womens perception Problem: about sexual harassment Comments: Comments: This problem is not clear because it does not specify what group of women will be studied. What is implied is all kinds of women. Even the word perception is not clear. One may ask, perception regarding what of sexual harassment

Example of a Clear Problem

Research problem: Attitudes Towards Sexual problem: Harassment of Female rank and File Bank employees in Makati City Comment: n this research problem, it is clear that what is being examined is attitudes towards sexual harassment. It is also clear that the study will cover female rank and file bank employees in Makati City, though the location of the study need not always be specified. Specifying it helps further clarification of the research problem.

Example of an Unethical Problem Research problem: The Effect of Punishment on problem: the Self-Esteem and Academic Performance of SelfAdolescents Comments: if an experiment is to be conducted, punishment will be applied to the experimental group/ but withheld from the control group. Even if the result of the study shows that punishment will improve self-esteem and performance, selfapplying punishment to students for the sake of research in unethical

Example of an Ethical problem

Research Problem: Students Perceptions on the Problem: Effect of Physical Punishment on the SelfSelfEsteem and School Performance Comments: A survey on students perception about the effect of physical punishment on their selfself-esteem and performance does not raise an ethical issue, since respondents are only asked about their perceptions. It is still important to explain to the respondents the purpose of the study and get the informed consent to participate in the study

1.

An Introductory Phase a. it was the purpose of this study b. The purpose of this study is c. the study is aimed at d. this study attempts 2. A general Plan of procedure a. to investigate b. to determine c. to examine and analyze 3. The objective of the Plan (to investigate) the child-rearing practices of parents child(to determine) the degree of efficiency of the maintenance of the plant and its equipment (to examine and analyze) the linguistic structure 4. The setting of the Study (to investigate the child-rearing practices of parents in childthe three fishing villages in Balanga City: PTO Rivas, Cupang, Cataning

Problem Conceptualization

The sub-problem lead to the main problem: sub What are the behavior problems of each inmates?  What is the personal profile each inmate on the basis of these criteria: a. home background b. personality traits c. felt problems  What is the academic profile of each inmates based on: a. performance in school b. intelligence quotient?  How do the inmates personal and academic profiles relates to his behavior?

The Sub-Problem Sub-

Formulation of Research Framework

Research Framework explain the existence of a problem - It serve as basis for examining and analyzing the connection between or among the study variables - Theoretical framework present a theory that explains why a problem under study exist, and explain the connection between certain factors and the problem. - The choice of a theory depends on the number and the nature of variables and the relationships being examined - the conceptual underpinnings of a study. The connection between a theory and the problem is explained in theoretical framework - The concept used in a theoretical framework are abstract and expressed in generally terms

Functions of a Theoretical Framework in Research

 Provides the general framework which can guide data analysis  Identifies the variables to be measured  Explains why one variable can possibly affect another or why the independent variable can possibly influence the dependent variable  Limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables  Stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data.

Conceptual framework
- Is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete terms. It is anchored on the theoretical framework - It explains in more detail the: variables to be observed in the study and assumed connection between the independent and dependent variables - It summarized in a paradigm or schematic diagram identifying the hypothesized link between the independent and dependent variable, controlling for the effect of another variable

The Role of Theory in research

TheoryTheory- is a set of concept which explains the occurrence of a certain phenomena - It is a statement of a relationship between two variables - It is possible to use two or more competing theories and test which theory best explains the problem - A competing theory may also used to explain the possible confounding influence of other variable on the assumed relationship between the major variables of the study

Review of Related Literature

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Is a series of references, simply documents the source of your idea and substantiates the rationale behind your question Purpose: To provide background to the research being conducted To gain insight into researching techniques which have been employed in previous studies To search for fact and information that will support the research question or hypothesis Helps the researcher identify and define a research problem Helps justify the needs for studying a problem Helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a study Source of a theoretical basis for the study Enable the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem Results of related studies provide lessons for data analysis and interpretation

Sources of Related Literature

1. general references: indexes, reviews, and abstract 2. Primary sources: journals article and other periodicals, research reports, thesis, dissertation 3. Secondary sources: textbook, encyclopedias, research reviews, yearbook

Criteria in Formulating a Related Literature 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Limit the problem Define the problem Avoid necessary repetition Search for new approaches Recommend suitable methods Sample current opinions

Steps in Reviewing the Literature

1. State the problem clearly 2. Review the precise definition of the research problem. Note the key variables specified in the study objective and hypothesis 3. List/formulate terms and descriptors (Key words or phrases) relating to the problem 4. Adopt a plan for obtaining literature systematically 5. Do a search in the libraries

Steps in reviewing the Literature

6.Record reference details on bibliographic cards 7.Read the selected reading materials, take note and summarize key points. In note taking be briefs as possible, but include all relevant information 8.Collate information 9.Prepare for writing text

Rules in Writing the text of the Review of Literature

1. Correct: all quotation, facts and figures are accurate and verifiable 2. Complete all necessary information relating to the research problem is included 3. Clear words and terms used in the descriptions are unambiguous 4. Coherent ideas arranged logically 5. Concise the review is an appropriate length considering the overall length of the report

Research objective
- Are statement of what the researcher intends to do, it flow logically from the problem - While the problem deals with broad concepts, the research objective usually states the concepts in operational terms - Example: students Extent of exposure to Example: Mass Media exposure to mass media is a broad concept. In the objective. To determine the students frequency of reading newspaper, frequency of reading newspaper is specific and measurable

Research Objective
 are usually stated in declarative form and start with infinitives like: to determine, to find out, to describe,  Research question are usually introduced with a clause, such as: This study aims to answer the following questions or This study sought answers to the following questions  Examples of research objectives: - To determine the extent of high school students participation in school activities - To determine the relationship between exposure to advertising materials and expenditure patterns of young professionals - To compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and classroomfieldfield-based training programs on the performance of community workers

Examples of objectives stated in question forms

This study sought answers to the following questions: 1. To what extent do high school students participate in school activities? 2. Does extent of participation in school activities of male students significantly differ from the extent of participation of female student? 3. Is there a significant relationship between the students extent of participation in school activities and their school performance?

Types of Objective
1. immediate/general objective related directly to the research problem and state clearly what the researcher will do and expects to find out. - Preferably stated in behavioral terms=in term of: who or what will be studied, who will do it, when it will be done or where it will be done - Specifies the activities that will take place and the variables that will examined - The way the immediate objective is formulated suggest the type of research that will be undertaken and the methodology that will be adopted

Example of immediate/general objective of a descriptive study Research Title: A Study on the Extent of Participation in School Activities of High school Student in City A Objective: A survey will be conducted to determine the extent of participation in school activities of high school student in city A during school year 2001 2002 What will be done? A survey will be conducted For what purpose? to determine the extent of participation in school activities Who will be studied? - high school student Where? In city A When? School year 2001 - 2002

Example of Immediate/ general Objective of a Correlational/ Relational Studies

Research Title: Exposure to Advertising and expenditure patterns of Young Professional in Iloilo City Objective: This study will be conducted to determine whether there is a significant relationship between exposure to advertising and expenditure patterns of young professionals in Iloilo City What will be done? This study will be conducted For what purpose? to determine whether there is significant relationship between exposure to advertising and expenditure patterns Who will be studied? Young professionals Where? Iloilo City When? not specified

Example of Objective of an Intervention/ Experimental Study

Research Title: A comparative Study of the Effectiveness of class-room based and Field-based training Programs classFieldin Improving the Performance of Volunteer Workers in Community X

Objective: this experimental study will be conducted to determine and compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and fieldclassroomfieldbased training programs in improving the performance of volunteer workers.
What will be done? This Experimental study will be conducted Why? For What purpose? To determine and compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and field-based classroomfieldtraining programs in improving the performance Who will be studied? community volunteer workers Where? Community X When? - October to November 2009

2.

Specific Objective

- In studies with broader coverage in terms of subject and variables, statement of specific objective may be necessary - Maybe viewed as sub-objective or small subparticles of the general objectives - The specific objective variables examined in the study are identified in the specific objective - The variables are expressed in measurable terms - The specific objective suggest the type of analysis to be done

Example of Specific Objective

Research Titles: Demographic and Socioeconomic Determinants of the Health-Seeking Behavior of the HealthElderly in Southern Mindanao General Objective. This study will be conducted to identify Objective. demographic and socioeconomic determinants of the health seeking behavior of the elderly in Southern Mindanao Specifically, the study aims to: 1. Determine whether there is a significant relationship between demographic factors, such as age, sex, and civil status of the elderly and their health-seeking healthbehavior 2. Determine whether there is a significant relationship between selected socio-economic characteristic of the socioelderly, particularly, educational attainment, community involvement, occupational and income, and their healthhealth-seeking behavior

Comments
-the terms demographic socio-economic sociodeterminants in the general objective is still broad. The term demographic characteristic can be specified in terms of educational attainment living arrangements. living arrangement or occupation

Tips in formulating research Objective

 Use simple language  Focus attention on the specific actions that will be performed  State exactly, what will be done and what variables will be measured  Write objective in behavioral terms, like to determine. to describe.., and the like

Examples of Statement of General and Specific objectives Example No. 1 Relationship between TV viewing and academic performance of grade Six pupils in Private and Public elementary School in region V1 Specific Objective: Specifically, the study aims to: 1. Determine whether there is a significant relationship the pupils frequency of viewing TV and their general average in all subject in grade six 2. Determine whether there is significant relationship between the amount of time spent by the pupil in viewing TV and their general average in all subjects in grade six

Example No.2 The effect of Fielding Trained Male Family Planning Educators on the Improvement of Contraceptive Use? General Objective: Objective: This experimental study will be conducted to determine the impact of fielding trained male family planning educators in the improvement of contraceptive use in two municipalities in Region 111 Specific Objective: Specifically, the study aims: 1. To determine whether there is a significant difference between the extent of contraceptive use in the area where trained male family planning educators use in the area where trained male family planning educators were fielded and that in the control areas before and after the study 2. To determine whether there is a significant difference between the change in extent of contraceptive use in the area where trained male family planning educators were fielded and the change in the control areas after the intervention

Hypothesis
- An educated guess to tentatively answer the research questions, logically and theoretically. - It is a statement about an expected relationship between two or more variables that can be empirically tested - Usually tested in intervention or evaluation studies and in correlation/relational studies - Purely descriptive studies or diagnostic and exploratory investigations do not normally require hypothesis statements because they generally do not test causal relationships between variables - Suggests the type of analysis that must be

Research hypothesis
- Is a statement of expectation of outcome of the study and generally states a direction of the expectation - Particularly useful when you have a hunch you want to study. That preconceived idea becomes your hypothesis and your research is designed to test it.

Function of Hypothesis
1. A single hypothesis might state that an independent variable is associated with a dependent variables Examples: There is a significant association between level of knowledge about the dangers of smoking and smoking habits of young professionals Parents extent of participation in school activities of their children is significantly related to their childrens school performance Direct selling of prepaid cell cards is more profitable than selling them in stores

2. Sometimes a hypothesis specifies that, under certain conditions (X,Y, and Z) variables A is associated with or can be influence variable B.
Examples: There is a significant association between level of knowledge about the dangers of smoking and smoking habits among young medical practitioners who have positive attitudes towards life Condition: if they have a positive attitudes There is a significant relationship between mens extent of exposure to gender issues and their degree of involvement in child care among those living in urban areas Condition: living in urban area Husband who have attended gender sensitivity training are more likely to participate in household chores when they are free, than those who have not attended training Condition: when they are free

3. Some hypotheses may state that a particular

characteristic of a person or object varies according to another variables Examples: The proportion of women who have experienced domestic violence is higher in the rural areas than it is in the urban areas Board performance of nursing graduates varies according to the type of school they graduated from The repayment status of new clients of the PAGPAGIBIG housing loan is significantly higher than of the old clients

Types of Hypotheses:
1. Null Hypotheses or alternative 2. Directional or Non-directional NonNull Hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates the absence of a relationship/correlation between two variables, an absence of a significant difference between the proportions of two groups of people or objects possessing a particular or an absence of difference between or among the means of two or more groups with respect to a particular variable, such as, mean age of males and mean age of females, and mean score in math of students who attended tutorial classes and mean score of those who did not attend tutorial classes.

Examples of Null Hypotheses

 There is no significant relationship between mass medias exposure and attitude land reform among lowland farmers  There is no significant difference between the proportion of health care providers who are smoking and the proportion of those who are not smoking  There is no significant difference between the mean age of male faculty members and the mean of female faculty members

Alternative Hypothesis or Research Hypothesis

- Is the positive form of the null hypothesis - It may state the presence of a significant relationship between the independent and dependent variables, or the presence of a significant difference between two means or two proportions

Example of Alternative hypotheses

There is a significant relationship between mass media exposure and attitude towards land reform among lowland farmers. There is a significant difference between the mean age of male faculty members and the mean age of female faculty members. There is a significant difference between the proportion of health care providers who are smoking and the proportion of those who are not smoking. The amount paid in advertisement by food establishments is significantly associated with their monthly gross sales

Directional Hypotheses
- States whether the relationship between two variable is direct or inverse or positive or negative. - A positive or direct relationship is present when the value of one variable increases with the increase in the value of another. - The relationship is negative when the value of one variable increases as the value of another decreases

Examples of Directional Hypotheses

 The higher the level of exposure of farmers to mass media the more favorable their attitude towards land reform (positive)  The more time employees spend meeting, the less productive they are. (negative)  The higher the advertisement expense of food establishments, the higher their monthly gross sales. (positive)

NonNon-Directional Hypotheses
 Does not specify the direction of relationship between variables  It merely states the presence or absence of a relationship between two variables or that one variable influences another, or there is a significant difference in the mean values of the two variables.

Examples of Non-directional Hypotheses Non-

 The womens educational attainment is significantly associated with their extent of participation in decision-making at home. decision There is a significant difference between the proportion of women and the proportion of men who are engaged in dry goods business.  Students who attend tutorial classes perform better than those who do not attend.  Taking vitamins regularly tend to improve a workers total health status

Criteria in Writing Hypotheses

 Must be written in simple understandable language  Must focus on the variables  One must keep in mind the distinction between independent and dependent variables

Examples of Statement of Hypotheses

 The Relationship Between Level of Awareness Regarding the Dangers of Smoking and Smoking Habits Among High School Students Objectives of the study: The study will be conducted to determine the relationship Between Level of Awareness Regarding the Dangers of Smoking and Smoking Habits Among High School Students

Specific Objectives
1. To determine the relationship between students awareness about the Dangers of smoking and their practice of smoking. 2. To determine the relationship between the students level of awareness about cancer and the number of sticks of cigarettes smokers smoke in a day.

Hypotheses
1. A high school student who is aware of the dangers of smoking is more likely not to smoke than one who does not know about it. 2. The higher a students level of awareness about lung cancer and its causes the fewer sticks of cigarettes she/he smokes in a day Another way of stating the second hypotheses: There is a significant relationship between the students level of awareness about lung cancer and its causes and the number of cigarettes sticks they smoke in a day.

( Null Hypotheses: only one set of hypotheses is

needed)

1. There is no significant relationship between the students level of awareness about lung center and its causes and the number of cigarette sticks they smoke a day. 2. The students level of awareness about lung cancer is not significantly related with their smoking practices.

VARIABLES
- Is a concept that stands for a variation within a class of objects or person - An attribute of a person or object that varies, that is, takes on different values. - Are basic elements which are measured in a study. They are observable and measurable Ex: weight, BP readings, preoperative anxiety levels, body temperature. -For quantitative research nearly all aspects of human beings and their environment are considered variables

Research Variables
1. Research variables Identifiable from research questions and or hypothesis which Includes: A. Dependent Variable- is the assumed Variableeffect of another variable. It is the change that occurs in the study population when one or more factors are changed or when an intervention is introduced. Usually dependent variable is the problem it self.

-these are phenomena you observe the

occurrence of the independent variables

B. Independent variablevariable- Variable that is observed, introduced or manipulated in order to determine what effect it has on another variable of interest - Called more appropriately the experimental, treatment, causal or stimulus variable -is the assumed cause of a problem. It is an assumed reason for any change or variation in a dependent variable. An independent variable is sometimes treated as antecedent variable (the variable before). Likewise, an antecedent variable may be treated as an independent variable.

C. Correlated variables
neither dependent nor independent, but occurring in the presence of each other Ex: the relation of chronic mental illness and lower socioeconomic level Research question: What is the relationship of mental illness and poverty? 2. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES All relevant variables that are not the direct focus of inquiry; that is, they are not identified in the research question or hypothesis which include:

A. Environmental variables
- Factors which impinge on the individual (economic,

anthropological, sociological, and physical factors)

B. Organismic variables
- Physiological, psychological, and demographic factors - Ex: age, sex, marital status, education, type of work, personality, height, weight, BP, racial group, nationality, religion, hair color, job skill, intelligence, political belief, income, and level of wellness

Measurement of Variables
- Refers to how you collect the data about the variables in order to test the hypothesis or answer the research question

The Relationship Between Exposure to

Mass

Media and Smoking Habits among Young Adults

Independent: Independent: exposure to mass media Dependent: Dependent: Smoking habits - A persons smoking habits is assumed to change or vary depending on his/her mere exposure or degree of exposure to print or broadcast media elated to smoking

Effect of Peer Counseling on the Students Study Habits Independent variables: Exposure to peer variables: counseling Dependent variables: Study habits variables: It is assumed that the students who have been counseled by peers will have better study habits that those who were not counseled by peers or those who have been exposed to traditional counseling techniques

Intervening Variable
-Is a factor that works between the independent and dependent variables. It can be weaken (decrease) or strengthen (increase) the effect of the independent on the dependent variables It is also a facilitating variable, or a moderator or a control variable

Knowledge of the Dangers of Smoking, Attitudes towards Life, and Smoking Habits of Young Professionals Independent: Independent: Knowledge of the danger of smoking Intervening: Intervening: Attitudes towards life Dependent: Dependent: Smoking Habits - A persons attitudes may increase or decrease the influence of knowledge on dangers of smoking (independent) on smoking habits (dependent ) knowing the dangers of smoking, one may stop smoking. One may argue, however, that knowledge about the dangers of smoking may not necessarily prevent a person from smoking if he does not mind dying early s long as he enjoys life.

Factors that Influence Household

DecisionDecision-making Participation of
Married Professional
Independent: factors: sex. Age factors: Intervening variables: gender Sensitivity variables: (perception about roles) Dependent variables: decision-making variables: decision-

In the study on Factors that Influence Household decision-making Participation of decisionMarried Professionals
- The intervening variables gender sensitivity may affect the relationship between selected factors (independent variables) and decision-making participation decision(dependent variable). - Men are generally expected to participate in decisiondecisionmaking more than woman because of social prescription. Older, better educated individuals and those with big income are also expected to participate more actively in decisiondecision-making than their younger less educated counterparts - It mat also be possible that a women with a gender sensitive partner may also be actively involved in decisiondecision-making, despite poor education or low income

The Effect of information Education Campaign (IEC) on Land Reform on the Farmers Attitude Towards Land Reform

-Independent: Exposure To IEC Materials on Independent: Land reform Intervening: Length of Farmer-Landlord FarmerRelationship Dependent: Dependent: attitudes Towards Land Reform

The effect of IEC on Land reform on the farmers Attitude Towards Land Reform

-The length of a farmer-landlord relationship farmeris the intervening variables. It is assumed that this variable can strengthen or weaken the relationship between exposure to IEC materials (Independent variable) and Attitudes towards Land reform ( dependent variables). A farmer may have read or heard about benefits of land reform, but still reject it (negative attitude) because of a long and close relationship with his landlord and his family which he does not want to be cut off by land

Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of College Freshmen AntecedentAntecedent- is a factor or characteristic which id found before (ante) the independent variable. It is expected to influence the independent variables. It is usually irreversible. Antecedent: Antecedent: sex, residence, parents Education Independent: Independent: Extent of Exposure to Print Media Dependent: Reading ability

Extent of exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of College Freshman

- The main concern is the relationship between students extent of exposure to print media (independent variable) and their reading ability (dependent variable). the students exposure to print media, however, may depend on their sex, residence and their parents education (antecedent variable)

Operational Definition of Variables

- Specifies how a variables or a term in interpreted in the study and also sets the procedures for measuring variable. - It may differ from that employed in another study - It give specific meaning to the variable, it clarifies how a variable or a term is used and measured in the study - Meaning different from their dictionary meaning

examples of operational definition

Purpose of the study: The study aims to determine the significant relationship between level of stress and coping strategies in hospitalized patient: Is there a significant relationship between level of

stress and coping strategies in hospitalized patient? Terms to be defined: Level of stress: the number and intensity of events,
perceived by the patient as causing strain or tension, that occurred during the past 12 months as measured by the Holmes and Rahe Significant life event scale

Coping strategies: A persons customary pattern of

adapting to or dealing with perceived stressful events as measured by a rating scale evaluating both the number of strategies and the frequency with which the individual uses them

Operational definition
- Family planning user: is any currently married woman aged 15 to 49 years old or a married man aged 15 or older who has used a method to prevent or space pregnancy at least once during the last three months - Coastal Barangay: is a village or community which is located near the sea where fishing is the main activity of the residents

Guidelines in making Operational Definitions

1. List the independent, dependent, intervening variables 2. Write operational definition for each variables 3. Identify the possible categories of each variable and determine if the categories can be clearly understood, are mutually exclusive (do not overlap) and exhaustive. The list of categories is complete so that all respondent can be categorized 4. List the key terms which may be interpreted differently by different people, unless they are operationally defined. Write an operational definition for each term

4. When defining variable or a term, be guided by the following questions:

a. Does the definition clearly specify the way the variable will be measured? b. Are the categories of each variable mutually exclusive? c. Are the categories exhaustive/

Sampling
- Is

the process of choosing a representative of a population or some elements in a population or some elements in a population that will represent the entire population

Definition of terms:
Population refers to the total number
of elements to be studied. e.g. object, areas, or individuals Ex: sexual attitudes and practices of student in public high school in province A All students in Public High School in the province constitute the study population

Population Elements
- This pertains to an item, an object, an area, or an individual on which data will be taken. It is considered the unit of study. Ex: a student in a public high School is a population element

Target population - This is the population for which representative information is desired Sampling population This the population from which a sample is actually drawn Sampling Frame is a list of all elements or sampling units (e.g. items, persons) in a population. The sample is drawn from the sampling frame SampleSample- This refers to an individual, an element or a group of individuals or elements on which information is obtained

Advantages of studying a sample

1. It is cheaper since a sample is smaller than the entire population, collection and processing of data is less 2. It is faster it is identify quicker to study fewer individual or elements than an entire population 3. It is more accurate fewer errors are expected in data collection and processing in a study of a sample than in a study of the entire population 4. It can yield more comprehensive information can be more thoroughly investigated and can yield more comprehensive information than a big population

Basic Types of Sampling

NonNon-probability sampling - Is arbitrary (non-random) and is generally (nonsubjective. Data gatherers choose sample cases, as they wish or wherever they find them

Probability Sampling
is based on the concept of random selection, a procedure that assures that all elements in the population are given an equal chance of being selected as a sample unit

Two common ways to choose person or elements:

1. Accidental sampling the investigator elects the sample units as they become available 2. Purposive Sampling the investigator Sampling uses a specific purpose in selecting a sample

5 Most Common Probability Sampling Technique

1. Simple random sampling is a process of selecting sample cases or subset of sample cases from population, giving all the sampling units equal chances of being included as a sample 2. Systematic sampling with a random start- is a startmethod of selecting a sample from a population by taking kth units from an ordered population, from the first unit which is selected at random. The k is called the sampling interval. The sampling interval is derived by dividing the total population by the desired sample size. To use this technique, an ordered list of the population elements is required

3. Stratified Random Sampling

- Is the process of selecting a random sample from subgroup or strata into which a population has been subdivided - A population is made up off groups of elements with varied characteristics, which can possibly affect observation or responses - The population is stratified into more or less homogenous, a sub-sample is drawn using subeither simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start

4. Cluster Sampling
- Is a method of selecting a sample of groups or clusters of elements - The number of clusters in the population represents the size of the population of clusters, while the number of elements in a cluster is called cluster size. The sample cluster can be drawn using simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start.

5. Multistage sampling
- The selection of the sample is accomplished two or more stages - The population is first divided into a number of firstfirststage units from which a sample is drawn - Then, the population in the sampled first stage units are divided into second stage units - More stages may be added, if desired by dividing the population into hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to the different sampling stages. - This process is usually used when the population can be divided into hierarchies. - The sampling process in each hierarchy is considered one stage

NonNon-Probability Sampling
Is a judgmental sampling. It does not provide every member of the population an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample.

TWO METHOD/WAYS TO CHOOSE A SAMPLE: 1. Accidental sampling the investigator selects the sample units as they become available 2. Purposive Sampling the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting a sample

DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE Two consideration in determining Sample Size 1. Availability of resources 2. The requirements of a proposed plan of analysis FORMULA: if populations is more than 10,000 N = Z2pq d2

SAMPLING
- Is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population or some elements in a population that will represents the entire population Definition of terms: Population refers to the total number of elements to be studied Population elements this pertain to an item, an object, an area, or an individual on which data will be taken. It is considered the unit of the study Target population is a population for which representative information is desired

Sampling Population
- Is the population from which a sample is actually drawn SAMPLING FRAME is a list of all the elements or sampling un its in a population SAMPLE refers to an individual, an element or a group of individuals or elements on which information is obtained

STATISTIC - Are measured numeric values, called data, collected from the sample subject -Summaries of the data TWO TYPES: 1.DESCRIPTIVE 2. INFERRENTIAL

DATA
- The pieces of information obtained in the course of a study - Data that are likely to change from one measurement to another are called Variables. Constant are measurement that can never change. Variables may be continuous theoretically able to assume an unlimited number of fractional values between any two possible whole- number values. wholeAlternatively, variable may be discrete able to assume only certain specific values and no fractional values in between Ex. Of continuous data: weight, score in a test, amount of alcohol in the blood Ex. Of Discrete data: cars, boys, girls, household

Types of Data or Measurement

1. Nonmetric measurement a. Nominal b. Ordinal 2. Metric measurement a. Interval b.Ratio

NOMINAL
- Lowest level of measurement, it involves the assignment of numbers simply to classify characteristic into categories Ex of variables: gender, bld type, ng specialty -the numeric code assigned in nominal measurement are not intended to convey any quantitative information it is purely symbolic

Ordinal Measurement
-the next level of measurement hierarchy, it permits the sorting of object on the basis of their standing on an attribute relative to each other - This level of measurement goes beyond a mere categorization: the attributes are ordered according to some criterion eg. If a researcher were to rank-order subject from the heaviest to ranklightest. - This tells the researcher the relative ranking of the levels of an attribute - Ex. of mathematical used are frequency counts, percentages

Interval Measurement
- Occurs when the researcher can specify both the rank-ordering of object on an attribute rankand the distance between those object - The distance between the numeric values on an interval scale represent equal distances in the attribute being measured - More informative than ordinal measure but one piece of information that interval measurement fail to provide is the absolute magnitude of the attribute

Ratio Measurement The highest level of measurement can be distinguished from interval scale by virtue of having a rational, meaningful zero This provide information concerning the rankrankordering of objects on the critical attribute, the intervals between objects, and the absolute magnitude of the attribute for the object Have equal interval and meaningful zero point absolute zero, all arithmetic operation are permissible. One can meaningfully add, subtract, multiply and divide on a ratio scale Ex. Physical attribute like weight and height

Descriptive statistic
-Summaries of data or numerical information presented in formats that enable easy comprehension. These include charts, graphs, numeric tables and averages Types: 1. Measure of Central Tendency: mean, frequency, mode, median, percentile 2. Measure of Dispersion: Standard Deviation

Central Tendency
-As an index of central location employed in the description of frequency distribution RunyonRunyon-Haber Frequency simply means how many and is determined by counting. The number of men and the number of women in a given geographic location are frequencies. - Are important means of imposing order on a set of raw data and of classifying group patterns

MODE
- Is the simplest to determine of the three measures of central tendency and seldom used in research report - Is the numeric value in a distribution that occur most frequently. - Is not computed but rather is determined through inspection of a frequency distribution - Are quick and easy method of determining the most popular score at a glance but are unsuitable for further computation and unstable.

MEDIAN
- the middle score. - Is that point on a numeric scale above which and below which 50% of the cases fall. - An important characteristic of the median is that it does not take into account the quantitative values of individual scores - An index of average position in a distribution of numbers and is insensitive to extreme values - Abbreviated as Md or Mdn.

Percentile
- Are used in communicating to individual how they compare with others.

MEAN
- Is the point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of the score divided by the total number of score - Is the index of central tendency that is usually referred to as an average - Most stable and most reliable estimate of MCT of the population - The arithmetic mean is the most appropriate index in situation in which the concern is for totals or combined performance of a group.

Measures of Variability - Known as dispersion - Common Indexes developed: Range, semiquartile, and standard deviation RANGE - Is simply the highest score minus the lowest score in a given distribution - It indicate the distance on the score scale between the lowest and highest values - Is used largely as a gross descriptive index and is typically reported in conjunction with, not instead of other measures of variability

Semiquartile Range
- Is calculated on the basis of quartiles within a distribution - Indicates half the range of scores within which the middle 50% of score lies. Because this index is a measure based on the middle cases rather than extreme score, it is considerably more stable than the range.

Standard Deviation
- With interval- or ratio-level data interval- ratio- the most widely used statistic that measure of variability - It summarizes the average amount of deviation of values from the mean. - In variability index is someway capturing the degree to which scores deviate from one another - This concept of deviation is represented in both range and the semiquartile range by the presence of a minus sign, which produce an index of deviation, or difference, between two score points.

Bivariate Descriptive Statistic

Contingency table or cross tabulation is essentially a two-dimensional frequency twodistribution in which the frequency of two variables are cross-tabulated cross- The system of bars and cross-hatches can crossthen be used to tabulate the number of subjects belonging in each cell. - Is usually restricted to nominal data or to ordinal data that have few values or ranks.

CORRELATION
- The most common method of describing the relationship between two measures. - The graphic presentation of a correlation between two variables is called scatter plot or scatter diagram - Test for Correlation: 1. Contingency Coefficient Correlation - for nominal data is appropriate for answering such question what is the relationship between the region of the country in which one lives and the basic nursing program from which one graduated?

2. Spearman rho Correlation

- Requires that both variables be measured in at least an ordinal scale so that the data can be ranked in two ordered series 3. Pearson Product Moment Correlation is the appropriate correlation statistic for interval and ratio data. Data such as age, weight, and height

Inferential statistic
- Are statistic we used to infer or draw a conclusion about something - We frequently want to know the probability of our sample representing the population - An important concept of inferential statistic is decision making - In making decision you need to know about oneone-tailed and two tailed

OneOne-tailed and two-tailed test twoOneOne- tailed - means that both ends or tails of the sampling distribution are used to determine the range of improbable values Two tailed - When the researcher has strong basis for using a directional hypothesis it may justifiable to used one-tailed test one-

Parametric and Non Parametric test

Parametric test - characterized by three attribute: involve the estimation of at least one parameter; require measurement on at least an interval scale; involve several underlying assumptions about the variables under consideration, such as the assumption that the variables are normally distributed in the population

Nonparametric test
- Are not based on the estimation of parameters. Usually applied when the data have been measured on a nominal or ordinal scale - It involve less restrictive assumption concerning the shape of the distribution of the critical variables than do parametric test - Sometimes called distribution-free statistic distribution-

Chi square
- Is an inferential statistic appropriate for frequency data whenever you can count the number of items in a category

Sign test
- A simple test may be used with ordinal data MannMann-Whitney U a nonparametric inferential statistical test that is appropriate for ordinal data - One of the most powerful of the nonparametric tests, and it is a most useful alternate to the parametric t test when the researcher wishes to avoid the t tests assumption, or when the measurement in the research is weaker than the interval scaling

t Test
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Is a parametric test that is widely used Sometimes referred to as students t Assumption include: Normal distribution Random sampling Homogeneity of variance Independent sample Data measured on at least an interval scale