Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
The purpose of this pilot briefing is to discuss
acknowledged:
pressure of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) varies with its speed of motion. (PHAK pg. 2-3)
Law 1 A body at rest will remain at rest. A body in motion will remain in motion
For an airplane, inertia keeps it moving. In contrast, if it is out sitting on the ramp, it will remain on the ramp until an outside force causes it to move.
In other words, an airplane takes a bite of air with the propeller, throwing air back behind over the aircraft. This is the action. The airplane reacts to the propulsion of air, by moving forward.
(1)
Low Pressure
(2)
(3)
Air going over a wing. Notice the shape of the wing creates a Venturi. The low pressure develops on top of the airfoil.
Coanda effect. This is the tendency for a fluid to follow the object along its flow path.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvLwqRCbGKY http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S-SAQtODAQw The way the water causes the object to move, is the
same concept as the boy blowing over a piece of paper, causing the paper to move upward.
Aerodynamics of a wing
Wing construction plays an important role in
(4)
Aerodynamics of a wing
Dihedral The upward angle that exists
Chord Line The exact line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing.
(6)
Aerodynamics
Now that the basics of lift & wing
characteristics are understood, weight and balance must be examined to insure safe flight.
The next slides will explore the weight & balance of the Piper Archer
(7)
Weight = the actual weight of the object/person in pounds. Arm = the distance from a datum, to the applied force
(PHAK 3-9) The datum in the Piper Archer is right at the tip of the nose of the plane. For example, the arm for calculating fuel is 95 inches. This means that the fuel tanks are located 95 inches aft of the datum. The applied force is the location of the fuel tanks.
total weight.
Center of Gravity (CG) is the center point where all the weight
acts through.
The C.G. range for the Piper Archer is 82 inches to 93 inches.
Answer: Right beneath your feet, as you sit in the pilots seat.
balance if it were suspended at that pointThe center of gravity is not necessarily a fixed point; its location depends on the distribution of weight in the airplane. (PHAK 8-2).
But, what is the difference between the two? The center of gravity is calculated for every flight. The center of pressure is not calculated.
So, what is angle of attack? Angle of attack is the angular difference between the chord line and the relative wind.
(8)
(9)
of pressure changes.
For level flight (top picture) the CG is before the center of pressure
With a small angle of attack (middle picture) the center of pressure is slightly before the CG
(10)
With a large angle of attack (bottom picture) the center of pressure is ahead of the CG
When the angle of attack increases, the center of pressure moves forward
When the angle of attack decreases, the center of pressure moves rearward
Center of pressure is the point where the resultant force crosses the chord line (PHAK 2-7) Now, what is the resultant force?
Resultant force is the average between the force of lift and the force of drag. (11)
This is because throughout the flight, your lift varies (you climb, descend, level off) and your drag varies (fly with/without flaps).
Remember, when you climb and descend, you are increasing, or decreasing your angle of attack.
When the forces of lift and drag are constantly changing, the center of pressure is constantly changing. (11)
Drag
In the previous slide, drag was introduced into the
discussion.
In the Piper Archer, adjusting the position of the flaps,
is an example of how the force of drag can be varied. But, it is not the only way that drag can be altered.
There are two main types of drag: Parasitic Drag Induced Drag
Parasitic Drag
Parasitic drag is the most basic type of drag. It is broken down
Form Drag Results from the disrupting the airflow going over the surface of the wing Interference Drag This occurs at the intersection of air currents. For example, the wing root connected to the fuselage. Skin Friction The basic friction that exists from air (a fluid) flowing over an airfoil.
Induced Drag
The second main type of drag is induced
drag.
There is no way to minimize it. Rather, it is simply a result of the wing developing lift. No system can be 100% efficient. Whenever a wing is developing lift, induced drag is consequently being generated.
This pressure differential triggers the rollup of the airflow aft of the wing resulting in swirling air masses trailing downstream of the wingtips (PHAK 12-13).
The pressure difference the PHAK is referencing is the Low pressure above the wing, countered with a High pressure below the wing. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1ESmvyAmOs
Wingtip Vortices
Always land beyond an aircraft generating significant wingtip vortices. Rotate prior to their rotation point. ALWAYS give yourself plenty of time to avoid them. Remember to sidestep upwind. Problem: Have you ever seen a Piper Archer out climb a 727? Probably Not. So, what good will it do to rotate prior to their rotation point if you cant remain high above their climb out path? You will eventually fly through them. Time will solve this problem so that the vorticies can dissipate. (12)
Wingtip Vortices
Wingtip Vortices
Imagine an infinite wingwould it have
wingtip vortices?
Answer: No. This is because an infinite wing would not have wingtips, therefore it would not develop wingtip vortices. Wingtips generate induced drag. Therefore if an infinite wing does not have wingtips, it would not generate induced drag.
Introduction to Stability
An important design characteristic to be
Introduction to Stability
Static Stability is the aircrafts initial response
following a disturbance.
Positive static stability means that initially, the aircraft will return to its original position. After being disturbed, it wants to go back.
Neutral static stability means that initially, the aircraft will remain in a new position after being disturbed.
Negative static stability means that initially, the aircraft will continue away from its original state, after being disturbed. (14)
Introduction to Stability
Dynamic stability is the aircrafts response over a period of time. (A) Is an example of positive dynamic stability. Over time, the aircraft desires to correct back to the original state.
(15)
(B) Is an example of neutral dynamic stability. Over time, the aircraft will continually find a new position.
(C) is an example of negative dynamic stability. Over time, the aircraft will continue away from the original state.
Introduction to Stability
So, what types of stability does the Piper
Archer have?
Knowing that the Archer is used as a training
This means that initially, and over time, the aircraft wants to return to the original state.
Introduction to Stability
When discussing stability, the words
attitude and withstand stresses Controllability - The aircrafts response to pilot imputs
Maneuverability, controllability, and stability are each unique design characteristics, dont mistake them for the same thing!
Concepts to understand
It is important to understand some base aerodynamic
concepts about the Piper Archer. The first is the idea of ground effect. So, what is it exactly? Ground effect- Fly an airplane just clear of the ground (or water) at a slightly slower airspeed than that required to sustain level flight at higher altitudes (PHAK 3-7).
Concepts to understand
According to the definition on the previous slide,
being in ground effect allows you to maintain level flight at slower airspeeds than you normally would, if you were up at altitude.
Why? When the aircraft is that close to the ground, there is a reduction of induced drag. Because the effects of aircraft upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices are altered, the inherent drag due to lift, is decreased. When the aircraft generates less drag, consequently the airspeed, when operating in ground effect, can be reduced.
Concepts to understand
When you enter ground effect, the following phenomena occur: On entering ground effect: 1. Induced drag is decreased 2. Nose-down pitching moments occur 3.The airspeed indicator reads low Upon leaving ground effect: 1. Induced drag is increased 2. Nose-up pitching moments occur 3The airspeed will read higher (correctly) Page 72 Flight Theory for Pilots
Concepts to understand
According to the diagram, in ground effect, less thrust is required to maintain any given velocity, compared with the thrust required out of ground effect. Because less thrust is required, also displays the correlation as to why you can maintain level flight at a slower airspeed. Therefore, the wing will require a lower angle of attack in ground effect to produce the same lift coefficient or, if a constant angle of attack is (16) maintained, an increase in lift coefficient will result (PHAK 3-7).
Concepts to understand
Where exactly are the limits of the ground effect
region? The maximum altitude that an aircraft can experience ground effect depends on the wing span of that specific airplane.
Generally, the distance of about the wing span, determines the region of ground effect. The wingspan of the Piper Archer is 35.5 feet. To estimate the altitude you will enter/exit ground effect, take 35.5 divided by 2 = appx. 18 About 18 feet, above field elevation, is the upper limit that the aircraft will experience the phenomena associated with ground effect.
Concepts to understand
Another concept to be familiar with is the idea
of adverse yaw.
Adverse Yaw You change the camber (shape) of the wing with the ailerons when executing a turn. The upward wing has more lift than the lower wing. In adverse yaw, the aircraft tends to slip towards the upward wing due to the differential of lift.
In a turn, an increase in lift results in an increase in drag. The more drag on the upward wing causes a shift/twist around the vertical axis resulting in an uncontrolled turn.
(17)
Concepts to understand
Stalls are an important maneuver in the
fundamentals of flight training. But, understanding the aerodynamics behind a stall is equally important.
When does an airplane stall?
Remember from previous slides that angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative wind.
Concepts to understand
Lift is developed when air is flowing over the surface
of a wing. When a stall occurs, airflow over the top of the wing is disturbed. The airstream is no longer smooth, and the production of lift is reduced.
A stall occurs first at the wing root, then works out
toward the tip. This design characteristic is so that you still maintain aileron control as long as possible.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eoboZNL9R8
Concepts to understand
Referencing the definition of when a stall will occur,
note that there is not an airspeed associated with it. at. A stall will ALWAYS occur when you exceed the critical angle of attack.
will happen. But, the manufacture does provide us with a respective airspeed that a stall will usually occur. It is incorrect to believe that flying at this speed will produce a stall. Rather, the critical angle of attack will normally be exceeded at those approximate speeds.
Concepts to understand
In the Piper Archer there are two airspeeds
Vs and Vso
Stall speeds are based upon 1G, wings level, unaccelerated flight.
Concepts to understand
Why would there be a difference in stall
When flaps are added, the camber of the wing is changed. Because the chord line has increased, it is now easier for lift to develop.
This is why a stall the respective stall speed is slower with an airplane configured with flaps.
critical to develop a solid understanding about the basic aerodynamics regarding the Piper Archer.
If you have any questions about topics
covered in this presentation feel free to contact a RMC flight instructor, or professor.
FLY SAFE!
Resources Used
Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
FAA-H-8083-25, 2003, U.S. department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration. Flight Theory for Pilots, Charles Dole, Fourth Edition, Jeppesen-Sanderson Training Products Commercial Oral Exam Guide, Michael D Hayes, Sixth Edition, ASA
(1) http://www.sciencetoymaker.org/balloon/images/newton.gif (2) http://www.neam.co.uk/MathsFolder/venturi.gif (3) http://www.coolscienceexperimentsforkids.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/paper_lifted_by_air.jpg (4) http://www.mansfieldct.org/schools/MMS/staff/hand/flightpressureonawing_files/image007.jpg (5) http://knoxmodelairplane.com/_borders/clip_image004.jpg (6)http://www.researchsupporttechnologies.com/boomerang_site/Boomerang%20aerodynamics3_files/angle%20of% 20attack.jpg (7) http://www.cartoonstock.com/lowres/wpa1258l.jpg (8)http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Sports/0199 210896.angle-of-attack.1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.answers.com/topic/angle-ofattack&usg=__WyvMspHN9_L4SDhMIfsK5gf9VnI=&h=544&w=518&sz=55&hl=en&start=7&itbs=1&tbnid=uHQI8iAeK Ly5JM:&tbnh=133&tbnw=127&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dangle%2Bof%2Battack%26hl%3Den%26gbv%3D2%26tbs% 3Disch:1 (9) http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://resources.yesicanscience.ca/100_years/images/attack1.png&imgrefurl=http://resources.yesicanscience.ca/100_years/lift.html&usg=__UblbFSnzuShPfuFAcedC8Uf2w0=&h=416&w=300&sz=22&hl=en&start=15&itbs=1&tbnid=3kW88gsx18m_TM:&tbnh=125&tbnw=90&prev=/image s%3Fq%3Dangle%2Bof%2Battack%26hl%3Den%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1 (10)http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.free-online-private-pilot-groundschool.com/images/CP_angle_of_attack.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.free-online-private-pilot-groundschool.com/aerodynamics.html&usg=__Q3CvhSjlrmiFNsP_HDI5Hn3jnTY=&h=658&w=589&sz=12&hl=en&start=1&it bs=1&tbnid=0Wc1faGAVIEQGM:&tbnh=138&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dangle%2Bof%2Battack%26hl%3De n%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1 (11)http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_fX9doSZqagk/SNcYVKrM9OI/AAAAAAAAAvk/BP8gYVm3gXU/s200/Figure+29+Force+vectors+on+an+airfoil.jpg (12) http://www.paragonair.com/public/docs/FAA-Handbooks/8083-25_AC61-23C_PHAK/_61-23C_Fig_06-18.jpg (13) http://www.atlasaviation.com/AviationLibrary/wake%20turbulence/accov.jpg (14) http://www.flightlearnings.com/backup/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/4-18.jpg (15) http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/images/damped_undamped.gif (16) http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/images/ground_effect_drag_lift.gif (17) aviatorthings.com