Data Collection Techniques part 1 Data Analysis Techniques

By Evelyn V. delos Reyes

TOPICAL OUTLINE
I.

Overview of Data Collection Techniques

II.

Importance of Combining Different Data Collection Techniques

II.

Bias in Information Collection

III. Ethical Considerations IV. Data Analysis Techniques (part 2)

Various Data Collection Techniques

Primary Data Collection
1. 2. 3.

Observing Interviewing (face-to-face) Administering written questionnaires

4. 5. 6.

Focus group discussions Projective technique Mapping, scaling

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

1. OBSERVING
Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting , watching and recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena. Observation of human behavior is a much-used data collection technique.

Observation of Human Behavior

Two (2) Different Ways: y Participant Observation The observer takes part situation he or she observes
y

in

the

Non-Participant Observation The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not participate

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

2. Interviewing (face-to-face)
An INTERVIEW is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either individually or as a group.

Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or by taperecording the responses, or by a combination of both.

Two (2) Varying Degrees of Flexibility

y

High Degree of Flexibility

In highly sensitive issues, the investigator should have an additional list of topics ready when the respondent falls silent.

Low Degree of Flexibility

Less flexible methods or interviewing are useful when researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of respondents being interviewed is relatively large.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

3. Administering Written Questionnaires

A

written

is a data collection tool in which questions are presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written form

questionnaire

Different ways of administering questionnaires: y By mail y Gathering respondents in one place at one time y Hand-delivering

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1. Open-Ended Questions Permit free responses which should be recorded in the respondents own words. 2. Closed Questions

Have a list of possible options or answers from which the respondents must choose.

Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions are useful for obtaining in-depth information on:

Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar; y Opinions, attitudes and suggestions of informants, or y Sensitive issues Example of Open-Ended Questions
y
y y y

What is your opinion? What do you think are the reasons ? What would you do if. ?

Advantages of Open-Ended Questions

1.

Allow you to probe more deeply into issues on interest being raised; Issues not previously thought of when planning the study may be explored, thus providing valuable new insights on the problem; Information provided in the respondents own words might be useful as examples or illustrations, which add interest to the final report Often, re-reading an answer in a later phase of the analysis offers the possibility for different interpretations in relation to other data collected, which would have been impossible if the answer had been precategorized.

2.

3.

4.

Risk of Completely Open-Ended Questions

1.

Skilled interviews are needed to get the discussion started and focused on relevant issues and to record all information collected. A big risk in incomplete recording of all relevant issues covered in the discussion. Analysis is time consuming and requires experience; otherwise important data may be lost

2.

Suggestions to Improve Use of Open Ended Questions

1.

Thoroughly train and supervise the interviews or select experienced research assistants; Prepare a list of further questions to keep at hand to use to probe for answer(s) in a systematic way; Pre-test open-ended questions and, if possible, pre-categorize the most common responses, leaving enough space for other answers

2.

3.

Pre-Categorized Questions
In interviews questions are often asked as open-ended questions, not to facilitate recording and analysis, some answers can already be pre-categorized.
Ex.: How did you become a member of the committee? 1. Volunteered 2. Elected 3. Nominated 4. Other (specify) appointed

Advantages of Pre-Categorized Questions

1. Answers can be recorded quickly; 2. Analysis is easier

Risks of pre-categorized answers 1. If one pre-categorizes too early, a lot of interesting and valuable information may never be recorded, or may end up in the category other.
2. Interviewers may try to force the information into the categories that are listed and, by merely ticking these, additional valuable information will be lost. 3. Interviewers may stop after receiving the first answer, whereas more than one response could be applicable. 4. Sometimes, if the respondent hesitates in answering, the interviewer may be tempted to present some possible answers, thereby causing bias. 5. Frequently, questionnaires have very little space for recording full responses under other, forcing the interviewer to write down a response that summarizes the respondents answer, thereby losing valuable information.

Suggestions to minimize risks associated w/ precategorized answers

1. If a question leads to an interesting discussion, it should

be written down as completely as possible, in addition to being coded. Space should be reserved to record these discussions.

2. Interviewers should be trained to solicit discussion when questions allow respondents to choose more than one option. The different options may be elaborated in subsequent questions. 3. In case of non-response, the interviewer should repeat or rephrase the question without providing options for answers. The interview guidelines should provide suggestions for further probing which all interviewers should follow 4. Adequate space should be provided so that other responses can be recorded as close as possible to the respondents own words. Otherwise categorization of these responses may be difficult afterwards

Closed Questions
Closed questions have a list of possible options or answers from which the respondents must choose. Closed questions are most commonly used for background variables such as age, marital status or education, although in the case of age and education you may also take the exact values and categorize them during data analysis. Closed questions may be used to get the respondents to express their opinions or attitudes by choosing rating points on a scale.

Example of Closed Questions

What is your opinion on the following statement:

Women who have induced abortion should be severely punished. 1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Not sure/no opinion 4. Disagree 5. Strongly disagree

Advantages of Closed Questions

1. It saves time 2. Comparing responses of different groups, or of the same group over time becomes easier

Risks of Closed Questions

1. In case of illiterate respondents, the interviewer may be
tempted to read the list of possible answers in the given sequence, thereby influencing the choice of response and introducing bias. question choosing still be variation

2. If there is no reasons for rating may considerable ratings.

to elaborate on the informants a certain rating, uniformity in deceptive, as there may be in reason for choosing the same

Suggestions to minimize risk w/ using closed questions

1.

Develop picture codes can be used for illiterates as well as literates (e.g., five, four, three, two and one stars indicating a 5-point scale).

2. First present the extremes and then the values in between so that the respondent is straight away aware of the range of answers. 3. Ensure inclusion of follow up questions to elaborate on reasons for choosing a given rating.

STEPS IN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE/ INTERVIEW GUIDE

Step Step Step Step Step 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Content Formulating questions Sequencing the questions Formatting the questionnaire Translation

STEPS IN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE/ INTERVIEW GUIDE

Step 1. Content Take your objectives and variables as a starting point Decide what questions will be needed to measure or (in qualitative studies) to define your variables and objectives. When developing the questionnaire, you should reconsider the you have chosen and, if necessary, add, drop or change may even change some of your objectives at this stage. Step 2. Formulating Questions
a.

the case of reach your variables some. You

Formulate one or more questions that will provide the information needed for each variable. Check whether each question measures one thing at a time. Avoid leading questions Avoid words w/ double or vaguely defined meaning or that are emotionally laden Ask sensitive questions in a socially acceptable way

b. c. d.

e.

STEPS IN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE/ INTERVIEW GUIDE Step 3. Sequencing the Questions

1.

Design your interview schedule or questionnaire to be informant friendly. The sequence of questions must be logical for the informant and allow, as much as possible, for a natural conversation, even in more structured interviews. Use simple, everyday language. Pose more sensitive questions as late as possible in the interview (e.g., questions pertaining to income, political matters,

2.

3. 4.

STEPS IN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE/ INTERVIEW GUIDE Step 4. Formatting the questionnaire

When you finalize your questionnaire, be sure that:

A separate, introductory page is attached to each questionnaire, explaining the purpose of the study, requesting the informants consent to be interviewed and assuring confidentiality of the data obtained. Each questionnaire has a heading and space to insert the number, date and location of the interview, and, if required, the name of the informant. You may add the name of the interviewer, to facilitate quality control. Layout is such that questions belonging together appear together visually. If the questionnaire is long, you may use subheadings for groups of questions. Sufficient space is provided for answers to open-ended questions, categories such as other and for comments on pre-categorized questions. Boxes for pre-categorized answers are placed in a consistent manner (e.g., on the right half of the page).

STEPS IN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE/ INTERVIEW GUIDE Step 5. Translation If interviews will be conducted in one or more local languages, the questionnaire should be translated in order to standardize the way questions will be asked. After having it translated you should have it retranslated into the original language by a different person. You can then compare the two versions for differences and make decisions concerning the final phrasing of difficult concepts.

INTERVIEW SKILLS
1. The interviewer-informant relationship and interview conditions
1.
2.

An interviewer needs to have the skills of a detective. When sensitive topics are being explored anonymity should be ensured

3.

Partnership between interviewer and informant implies that the interviewer will try to minimize the social distance between him/herself and the informant.

4. y y y y

Interviewers should try to blend in the environment. Clothing of interviewers should be culturally acceptable Sitting arrangements Gender relations have to be respected. A general rule is that, through his or her behavior, an interviewer should show interest in what the informant says, be at ease (never in a hurry) and make the informant feel at ease. This implies that the interviewer should never show any disapproval of the information received during the interview. Otherwise the informant will close up.

INTERVIEW SKILLS
2. The interviewers tasks
(a)

The introduction to the interview should be written as interview guide is being developed, even if there is only researcher, but certainly if a research team conducts interviews. This will ensure consistency, which prevents bias to interviewer variation.

the one the due

(b)

The art of posing questions. What to do when an answer is unsatisfactory. Clearly, the quality of an interview will be determined by the skills of the interviewer Evaluating answers and diagnosing what went wrong and why, so that corrective action can be taken on the spot. Noting down answers should never go at the cost of the cost of the eye contact with the informant, even if the information collected is not sensitive. Scribbles in a small notebook are preferable over more extensive notes, provided they are elaborated straight after each interview. Keeping control over the interview without imposing oneself is a skill each researcher has to learn.

(c)

(d)

(e)

INTERVIEW SKILLS
3. Training the research team/assistants Those who for the first time conduct a face-to-face interview will need training in the application of all the advice provided above. Good quality interview data form the heart of an HSR study. Obtaining such data presupposes more than

appropriate knowledge and skills; also specific attitudes (e.g., not imposing one self) and insight (e.g., appreciating signs of discomfort in an informant, and recognizing evading or, to the contrary, highly illuminating answers) are required.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

4.Focus Group Discussions (FGD)

Characteristics and uses of FGD
A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) is a group discussion of approximately 6 - 12 persons guided by a facilitator, during which group members talk freely and spontaneously about a certain topic. A FGD is a qualitative method. Its purpose is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group. A FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction. The idea is that group members discuss the topic among themselves, with guidance from the facilitator.

Uses of Focus Group Discussions

1.

Focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by exploring in greater depth the problem to be investigated and its possible causes. Formulate appropriate questions for more structured, larger scale surveys. Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions. Develop appropriate messages for health education programs and later evaluate the messages for clarity. Explore controversial topics.

2.

3.

4.

5.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

5.Projective Technique
When a researcher uses projective techniques, (s)he asks an informant to react to some kind of visual or verbal stimulus.
For example: An informant may be provided with a rough outline of the body and be asked to draw her or his perception of the conception or onset of an illness.

Another example of a projective technique is the presentation of a hypothetical question or an incomplete sentence or case/study to an informant (story with a gap). A researcher may ask the informant to complete in writing sentences such as: If I were to discover that my neighbour had TB, I would . . .; If my wife were to propose that I use condoms, I would . . . Or (s)he may ask the informant: Suppose your child suffered from diarrhea, what would you do?

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

6. Mapping and Scaling

Mapping is a valuable technique for visually displaying relationships and resources. In a water supply project, for example, mapping is invaluable. It can be used to present the placement of wells, distance of the homes from the wells, other water systems, etc. It gives researchers a good overview of the physical situation and may help to highlight relationships hitherto unrecognized.

Scaling is a technique that allows researchers through their respondents to categorize certain variables that they would not be able to rank themselves.

Mapping and scaling may be used as participatory techniques in rapid appraisals or situation analyses. In a separate volume on participatory action research, more such techniques will be presented. Rapid appraisal techniques and participatory research are approaches often used in health systems research

Various Data Collection Techniques

Secondary Data Collection
1.

Using available information Involves acquisition of data from secondhand sources like statistical publications, census, reports, financial statements, annual reports, brochures, catalogues, and other documents and reports. There is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analyzed or published. Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any data collection effort.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Using Available Information

1. 2.

Inexpensive Difficult to gain access to the records or reports required

3.

Data may not always be complete and precise enough, or too disorganized

Other Data Collection Methods

Is Delphi Method a qualitative process of acquiring information on issues. It involves forecasting or projecting trends or outcomes; e.g., prospects of banking industry given the liberalization law, forecasts on the future economy given the financial crisis, and future of the labor unions given the globalization trend.

The Delphi method entails using a panel of key informants who are considered experts on the topic under study, to be the respondents.,

Other Data Collection Methods

Unobtrusive Method
Using other sources aside from individuals. For instance, the time record is a source of information on employee attendance.

Difference between data collection techniques and data collection tools

Advantages and disadvantages of various data collection techniques

y y

IMPORTANCE OF COMBINING DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES When discussing different data collection techniques and their advantages and disadvantages, it becomes clear that they can complement each other. A skilful use of a combination of different techniques can reduce the chance of bias and will give a more comprehensive understanding of the topic under study. Researchers often use a combination of flexible and less flexible research techniques. Flexible techniques, such as  loosely structured interviews using openended questions,  focus group discussions, and  participant observation

BIAS IN INFORMATION COLLECTION

BIAS in information collection is a distortion in the collected data so that it does not represent reality.

Possible sources of bias during data collection:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Defective instruments, Observer bias Effect of the interview on the informant Information bias

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
As we develop our data collection techniques, we need to consider whether our research procedures are likely to cause any physical or emotional harm. Harm may be caused, for example, by:
y

violating informants right to privacy by posing sensitive questions or by gaining access to records which may contain personal data; observing the behaviour of informants without their being aware (concealed observation should therefore always be crosschecked or discussed with other researchers with respect to ethical admissibility); allowing personal information to be made public which informants would want to be kept private, and failing to observe/respect certain cultural values, traditions or taboos valued by your informants.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Several methods for dealing with these issues may be recommended:
y

obtaining informed consent before the study or the interview begins; not exploring sensitive relationship has been informant; issues before a good established with the

ensuring the confidentiality of the data obtained; and learning enough about the culture of informants to ensure it is respected during the data collection process.