Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Andrew D. Cohen
Definition of speech acts Historical overview of the field Examination of research methodologies Studies on the teaching of speech acts
According to Austins theory of speech acts (1962), utterances have three kinds of meaning. 1. Propositional/locutionary: literal meaning of an utterance 2. Illocutionary meaning: particular intention in making the utterance 3. Perlocutionary force: production of a particular effect in the addressee
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
An expression that speakers use contain a performative verb (e.g. apologize, excuse, be sorry) The speaker indirectly commit the offence with use of an explanation/account of the situation. Acknowledgement of responsibility. An offer of repair. (i.e. bid to take an action; provide payment) A promise of nonrecurrence.
Selecting the appropriate speech act strategy and the forms for realizing it
Social status
age
Selection factors
Social distance
The process is complex since it is conditioned by social, cultural, situational and personal factors.
culture
Perception Questionnaire
Discourse completion task
Role play
Disadvantages :
1. 2. 3. 4.
Apologies (contd)
Research on perception of apologies: Edmundson (1992) looked at the semantic formulas in apologies, including the ways of interpretation, the cues being used and the rules needed to interpretation. Subjects use mostly prosodic cues (i.e. intonation and word stress) to judge the sincerity of an apology. And appropriateness of apologies was rated according to its level of sincerity.
findings
Women rely more on lexical cues to judge the sincerity; men rely on both lexical, paralinguistic (nonverbal) and prosodic cues equally.
Refusals
Three follow-up studies (1987, 1990 &1991) investigated the refusals by NS and Japanese ESL and EFL learners. Results indicated the (negative) transfer existed in both ESL and EFL contexts. Excuses are common for both language, but American ones in English were more specific. Verbal report in Robinson(1991) study showed how sociocultural factors constraint Japanese women to say no since they are brought up to say yes.
Rejections
Hartford and Bardovi-Harling (1991, 1992, 1993) conducted a series of studies on rejections of advice and found that
NS are able to reject an advisers suggestion while maintaining the status balance, while NNS are less predictably to do so. NNS used more semantic formulas to realize each rejection and made more rejections; NS made more than twice as often as they rejected advice.
1. Explanations 2. Alternatives 3. Rejections
Compliments
Olshtain and Weinbach (1988) looked at 330 Israeli & 330 American responses on DCT and found five forms of response: 1. reinforcing the compliment 2. simply thanking the complimenter 3. agree with it 4. justify it 5. express surprise Israelis accepted a compliment with greater difficulty than Americans.
Complaints
Strategies combination Remarks
Its ok. Dont worry about it. Its ok. Accidents happen. Its ok. Its not like you meant to do it. Do/ Dont do X Can (Could) I/you X Id like to X I was wondering if I/you can (could) X
Indirect complaint
DeCapua (1988) study showed made more requests for repairs than Boxer (1993) study indicated that mostly commiserated with indirect complaints; were prone to contradict or to give advice.
Requests
Fukushima and Iwata(1987) compared strategies used in requesting and found similar formulas in Japanese and English:
1.apology reason request, 2.address term request reason, 3.address term and/or apology reason
Can you think of any examples? Are these orders similar to our way of requesting?
Implication for language teacher, the learner, and the language classroom
1. Diagnostic assessment is often the first step which helps the teacher determine the students level of awareness of speech acts in general. Model dialogues are a useful way to present students with examples of the speech act in use. The evaluation of a situation is a useful technique to further reinforce the learners awareness of the factors affecting the choice of semantic formulas. Role-play activities are particularly suitable for practicing the use of speech acts. Feedback and discussion are useful activities for speech act teaching because students need to talk about their perceptions & awareness.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Quiz answer
1. PERLOCUTIONARY The teacher intends to affect your behavior. Speech by which the speaker attempts to get someone else to do something is a perlocutionary act. 2.PROPOSITIONAL You are making a reference to the band and its performance at the club. Speech by which the speaker points out the existence of something is a propositional act. 3. ILLOCUTIONARY You are inviting your friend to respond to your question. Speech by which the speaker attempts to interact with someone else is an illocutionary act. 4. UTTERANCE You are not trying to communicate anything to anyone. When people make sounds without intending to convey meaning, they engage in utterance.