Molecules of Life

Chapter 2 Part 2

2.6 Organic Molecules

 The molecules of life carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids are organic molecules  Organic
Type of molecule that consists primarily of carbon and hydrogen atoms

Some Elemental Abundances

Modeling an Organic Molecule

Building Organic Molecules

 Carbon atoms bond covalently with up to four other atoms, often forming long chains or rings  Enzyme-driven reactions construct large molecules from smaller subunits, and break large molecules into smaller ones

From Structure to Function

 Cells assemble large polymers from smaller monomers, and break apart polymers into component monomers  Metabolism
All the enzyme-mediated chemical reactions by which cells acquire and use energy as they build and break down organic molecules

Monomers and Polymers

 Monomers
Molecules that are subunits of polymers Simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides

 Polymers
Molecules that consist of multiple monomers Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Condensation and Hydrolysis

 Condensation (water forms)
Process by which an enzyme builds large molecules from smaller subunits

 Hydrolysis (water is used)

Process by which an enzyme breaks a molecule into smaller subunits by attaching a hydroxyl to one part and a hydrogen atom to the other

Condensation and Hydrolysis

Animation: Condensation and hydrolysis

Animation: Functional groups

2.7 Carbohydrates

 Cells use carbohydrates for energy and structural materials  Carbohydrates Molecules that consist primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio

Complex Carbohydrates
 Enzymes assemble complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) from simple carbohydrate (sugar) subunits  Glucose monomers can bond in different patterns to form different complex carbohydrates
Cellulose (a structural component of plants) Starch (main energy reserve in plants) Glycogen (energy reserve in animals)

Some Complex Carbohydrates

Fig. 2-13 (center), p. 31

Fig. 2-13a, p. 31

Fig. 2-13b, p. 31

Fig. 2-13c, p. 31

Animation: Structure of starch and cellulose

Animation: Examples of monosaccharides

2.8 Lipids
 Lipids are greasy or oily nonpolar organic molecules, often with one or more fatty acid tails  Lipids
Fatty, oily, or waxy organic compounds

 Fatty acid
Consists of a long chain of carbon atoms with an acidic carboxyl group at one end

Fats
 Fats, such as triglycerides, are the most abundant source of energy in vertebrates stored in adipose tissue that insulates the body  Fat
Lipid with one, two, or three fatty acid tails

 Triglyceride
Lipid with three fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol backbone

Saturated and Unsaturated Fats

 Saturated fats pack more tightly than unsaturated fats, and tend to be more solid  Saturated fat
Fatty acid with no double bonds in its carbon tail

 Unsaturated fat
Lipid with one or more double bonds in a fatty acid tail

Fatty Acids
 Saturated, unsaturated, cis, and trans fatty acids

carboxyl group

long carbon chain

cis double bond

trans double bond

A stearic acid

B linolenic acid

C oleic acid

D elaidic acid

Fig. 2-14, p. 32

Phospholipids

 Phospholipids are the main structural component of cell membranes  Phospholipid

A lipid with a phosphate group in its hydrophilic head, and two nonpolar fatty acid tails

Phospholipids

hydrophilic head two hydrophobic tails A

one layer of lipids one layer of lipids B a lipid bilayer

Fig. 2-15, p. 32

one layer of lipids

one layer of lipids

B a lipid bilayer

Fig. 2-15b, p. 32

Waxes

 Waxes are part of water-repellent and lubricating secretions in plants and animals  Wax
Water-repellent lipid with long fatty-acid tails bonded to long-chain alcohols or carbon rings

Steroids

 Steroids such as cholesterol occur in cell membranes or are remodeled into other molecules (such as steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D)  Steroid
A type of lipid with four carbon rings and no fatty acid tails

Steroids

Animation: Fatty acids

Animation: Triglyceride formation

Animation: Phospholipid structure

Animation: Cholesterol

2.9 Proteins

 A proteins function depends on its structure, which consists of chains of amino acids that twist and fold into functional domains  Protein Organic compound that consists of one or more chains of amino acids

Amino Acid
 Amino acid
Small organic compound with a carboxyl group, amine group, and a characteristic side group (R)

Peptide Bonds
 Amino acids are linked into chains by peptide bonds  Peptide bond
A bond between the amine group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another

 Polypeptide
Chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Polypeptide Formation

serine methionine methionineserine

Fig. 2-17, p. 34

Animation: Peptide bond formation

Protein Synthesis
1. Primary structure (polypeptide formation)
A linear sequence of amino acids

2. Secondary structure
Hydrogen bonds twist the polypeptide into a coil or sheet

3. Tertiary structure
Secondary structure folds into a functional shape

Protein Synthesis
4. Quaternary structure
In some proteins, two or more polypeptide chains associate and function as one molecule Example: hemoglobin

5. Fibrous proteins may aggregate into a larger structure, such as keratin filaments
Example: hair

Protein Structure

lysine glycine glycine arginine 1 2 3 4

Fig. 2-18, p. 35

1) A proteins primary structure consists of a linear sequence of amino acids (a polypeptide chain). 2) Secondary structure arises when a polypeptide chain twists into a coil (helix) or sheet held in place by hydrogen bonds between different parts of the molecule. The same patterns of secondary structure occur in many different proteins.

lysine glycine glycine arginine 1 2 3 4

3) Tertiary structure occurs when a chains coils and sheets fold up into a functional domain such as a barrel or pocket. In this example, the coils of a globin chain form a pocket. 4) Some proteins have quaternary structure, in which two or more polypeptide chains associate as one molecule. Hemoglobin, shown here, consists of four globin chains (green and blue). Each globin pocket now holds a heme group (red). 5

5) Many proteins aggregate by the thousands into larger structures, such as the keratin filaments that make up hair.

Stepped Art Fig. 2-18, p. 35

Animation: Secondary and tertiary structure

The Importance of Protein Structure

 Changes in a proteins structure may also alter its function  Denature

To unravel the shape of a protein or other large biological molecule

Misfolded Proteins: Prion Disease

 Prion
A misfolded protein that becomes infectious Example: mad cow disease (BSE) in cattle Example: vCJD in humans

Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)

Fig. 2-19a, p. 36

Conformational change

PrPC protein

prion protein

Fig. 2-19a, p. 36

Animation: Structure of an amino acid

Animation: Molecular models of the protein hemoglobin

Animation: Globin and hemoglobin structure

2.10 Nucleic Acids

 Nucleotide
Monomer of nucleic acids Has a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and phosphate groups

 Nucleic acids
Polymers of nucleotide monomers joined by sugar-phosphate bonds (include DNA, RNA, coenzymes, energy carriers, messengers)

ATP
 The nucleotide ATP can transfer a phosphate group and energy to other molecules, and is important in metabolism  Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Nucleotide that consists of an adenine base, fivecarbon ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups Functions as an energy carrier

Functions of DNA and RNA

 DNA encodes heritable information about a cells proteins and RNAs  Different RNAs interact with DNA and with one another to carry out protein synthesis

DNA and RNA

 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Nucleic acid that carries hereditary material Two nucleotide chains twisted in a double helix

 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Typically single-stranded nucleic acid Functions in protein synthesis

A Nucleotide and Nucleic Acid

Fig. 2-20a, p. 37

base: adenine (A)

3 phosphate groups

sugar: ribose

Fig. 2-20a, p. 37

Fig. 2-20b, p. 37

Animation: Structure of ATP

Animation: Subunits of DNA

2.11 Impacts/Issues Revisited

 Our enzymes cant easily break down trans fats in processed foods, which causes health problems several countries will not import foods made in the US that contain trans fats

Digging Into Data: Effects of Fats on Lipoprotein Levels

protein

lipid Main Dietary Fats cis-fatty trans-fatty saturated acids acids fats an HDL particle LDL HDL ratio 103 55 1.87 117 48 2.44 121 55 2.2 optimal level <100 >40 <2

Fig. 2-21, p. 39