BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

RADIATIONS
 IONIZINGIONIZING-

X RAYS, GAMMA RAYS, BETA RAYS, ALPHA RAYS, NEUTRONS.  PROPERTIES- GAMMA, X RAYS AND PROPERTIESNEUTRONSNEUTRONS- PENETRATING.  BETA RAYS CAN BE STOPPED BY 5mm TISSUE CAN EFFECT ONLY SKIN  ALPHA RAYS CANNOT PENETRATE THE SKIN.  - HENCE NO EXTERNAL HAZARD.

MODES OF EXPOSURE
 EXTERNAL

EXPOSURE GAMMA RAYS, AND NEUTRONS. CO-60, IrCOIr192 , CS-137, Ra-226, NUETRON CSRaSOURCES. SKIN EXPOSURE DUE TO ENERGETIC BETA EMITORS  INTERNAL EXPOSURE: FROM OPEN ISOTOPES BETA AND ALPHA EMITORS .

INTERNAL EXPOSURE
 Ingesion,inhalation

and through wounds

and cuts  Radionuclides like Tritium and Cs may get distributed in the whole body  P-32 gets incorporated into DNA  Sr-90, Ra-226 bones SrRa Rn -222 lungs and Gonads;  I-131,I-125 Thyroids 131,I S-35 incorporated into protiens

Dose due to internal emitters

 Depends

on distribution of the radionuclide in the body  Physical half-life, biological half-life and halfhalfeffective half-life half Activity of the radionuclide  Energy and quality of the radiation emitted  E.g. 10mCi of ingested tritiated water (HTO) delivers an initial dose rate of 30 Sv/h

SKIN DOSES DUE TO

 BETA

EMITORS

EMITTORS CAN PENETRATE ONLY A FEW mm THROUGH THE SKIN  Basal layer of the skin at 0.007 cm is the critical tissue for contamination on the skin surface  Dose rate from 1 Ci/ sq.cm in mrad/h : Ci/ mrad/h C-14-1400 ;Ca-45-4000 ; P-32-9200 ; 14;Ca-45P-32Sr- +Y-90Sr-90 +Y-90-17000 ; Tritium cannot penetrate up to the basal layer

HUMAN EXPOSURES-LOW LEVEL EXPOSURES

1. 2. 3.

ALL THE LIVING BEINGS ARE EXPOSED TO NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION

TERRESTRIAL COSMIC RAYS INTERNAL EXPOSURE- K-40, EXPOSURERnRn- 222 INHALATION 2.5 mSv PER ANNUM

Average background radiation 

MEDICAL EXPOSURES (0.1-1 mSv PER ANNUM) 0.1MOST HUMAN BEINGS ARE EXPOSED DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY(X-RAY,CT SCAN ETC.) RADIOLOGY(XNUCLEAR MEDICINE

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE AVERAGE--2 AVERAGE--2 mSv PER ANNUM

HIGH LEVEL RADIATION EXPOSURE

1. NUCLEAR WARFARE 2. RADIATION ACCIDENTS (CRITICALITY ACCIDENT ETC). 3. LOSS OF RADIATION SOURCES 4. RADIATION THERAPY (50-70 Gy) (505.TECHNICAL FAILURE OF EQUIPMENT 6. HUMAN ERROR

ACTION OF RADIATION ON BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

 DIRECT

EFFECTEFFECT- IONISATION OF ATOMS AND EFFECTSEFFECTS- RADIATION INTERACTS

PRODUCTION OF SECONDRY ELECTRONS WHICH IONISE AND DAMAGE MOLECULES IN THE CELLS

 INDIRECT

WITH WATER IN THE CELLULAR ENVIRONMENTAND PRODUCES FREE RADICALS AND OTHER CHEMICALLY REACTIVE SPECIES WHICH INTERACT WITH BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT MOLECULES AND DAMAGE THEM  REACTIVE SPECIES-H,OH, e- aq ,H2O2 , HO2 , O2 SPECIES- OH HO

CELLULAR TARGET FOR THE ACTION OF RADIATION

 CELL

NUCLEUS- CHROMOSOMESNUCLEUS- CHROMOSOMESDEOXY RIBO NUCLEIC ACID(DNA)  NATURE OF DAMAGE TO DNA

SSBSSB- SINGLE STRAND BREAKS. DSBDSB- DOUBLE STRAND BREAKSBREAKSBASE DAMAGE CROSS LINKING
WHICH LEADS TO CELL KILLING,CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS AND MUTATIONS

CELLULAR LEVEL DAMAGE

 

CELL KILLING CHROMOSOMAL DAMAGE

BREAKS, DICENTRICS, INVERSIONS, EXCHANGES AND OTHER STRUCTURAL CHANGES
ANALYSIS OF THE FREQUENCY OF CHROMOSOMAL DICENTRICS SERVE AS A BIOLOGICAL DOSIMETER AND CAN DETECT OVEREXPOSURES HIGHER THAN 100 mSv

CELL MODIFICATION
CHANGE IN INFORMATION CONTENT OF THE CELLS DUE TO CHROMOSOMAL DELETIONS , REARRANGEMENTS AND POINT MUTATIONS

EFFECTS OF RADIATION
CELL KILLING
1.

DAMAGE TO CELLS.
INDUCTION MUTATIONS IMMIEDIATE EFFECT

2. DAMAGE TO ORGANS AND

TISSUES MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM. LATE EFFECT

CELL SENSITIVITY VARIATION


1. 2. 3.

SENSITIVE CELLS FAST DIVIDING STEM CELLS

LYMPHOCYTES BONE MARROW CELLS(ERYTHROBLASTS) SPERMATOGONIAL CELLS


1. 2. 3.

RESISTANT CELLS-DIFFERENTIATED CELLSNON DIVIDING CELLS

MUSCLE CELLS NERVE CELLS CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS

ORGAN SENSITIVITY
RADIO SENSITIVE ORGANS 1. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 2. BONE MARROW 3. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM  RADIO RESISTANT ORGANS 1. MUSCLES 2. NERVOUS SYSTEM 3. CONNECTIVE TISSUES


RADIATION EFFECTS IN HUMAN BEINGS



CELL KILLING LEAD TO DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS ABOVE A THRESHOLD DOSE 1. RADIATION SICKNESS 2. DAMAGE TO MAJOR SYSTEMS 3. DEATH (LD-50/60-3-5 Gy) (LD-50/604. DAMAGE TO INDIVIDUAL ORGANS 5. LATE EFFECTS (CATARACT, TISSUE FIBROSIS) 6. PRENATAL EFFECTS SEVERITY OF EFFECTS INCREASE WITH DOSE

MUTATIONS CAUSE STOCHASTIC EFFECTS

NO THRESHOLD DOSE HIGHER THE DOSE HIGHER THE RISK,LOW DOSES NEGLIGIBLE RISK PROBABILISTIC 1. E.G RADIATION CARCINOGENESIS (MAY APPEAR AFTER SEVERAL YEARS OR DECADES ) 2. GENETIC EFFECTS. ( MAY APPEAR IN FUTURE GENERATIONS)

Damage to Bone Marrow (2-6 Gy) (2 Bone

marrow depression  Blood cell count depression  Severe anaemia  Reduced resistance to infection  Death between 1-2 months 1 LD 50 (60) for human beings 3-5 Gy 3-

Damage to Individual Organs

 Skin

erhythema, skin burns, ulceration, erhythema, necrosis (5-30 Gy) (5 Reproductive system temporary or permanent sterility ( 4Gy)  Eye lens cataract (>2Gy)  Bone marrow cell depletion (>1 Gy)  Lungs Pneumonitis (>10 Gy fatal)  Intestinal damage-serious (>8 Gy) damage-

FACTORS MODIFYING
1. 2.

DOSE RATE- LOW DOSE RATE LOW RISK. RATERADIATION QUALITY

MORE DENSELY IONISING RADIATIONS ARE MORE HAZARDOUS RISK OF CANCER IS 20 TIMES HIGHER FOR ALPHA RAYS AND FISSION NEUTRONS AS COMPARED TO GAMMA RAYS

3. 4. 5.

PARTIAL BODY LESS RISK / WHOLE BODY HIGH RISK AGEAGE- CHILDREN MORE SENSITIVE PRENATALPRENATAL-MORE SENSITIVE
-MAL FORMATION / MENTAL RETARDATION RISK DUE TO EXPOSURES DURING THE FIRST 4 MONTHS OF PREGNANCY

RADIATION CARCINEGNESIS
1. LONG LATENT PERIOD 2. CHILDREN MORE SENSITIVE 3. FEMALE MORE SENSITIVE 4.BONE MARROW, BREAST,LUNGS,STOMACH,COLON MORE SENSITIVE 5. RISK- EXTRAPOLATED FROM HIGH DOSE 4% PER RISKSv FOR ADULTS(18-65 YEARS) ADULTS(18RISK DUE TO LIFE TIME DOSE OF 100 mSv IS 4 EXCESS CASES OF CANCER AMONG 1000 WORKERS EXPOSED

6. FOR RAYS AND FISSION NEUTRONS THE RISK OF CANCER INDUCTION IS 20 TIMES THAT OF GAMMA RAYS

CANCER RISK FROM CHRONIC EXPOSURES

 Risk

assessment based on human data from individuals exposed to large doses of radiation (eg. A-Bomb survivors) (eg. A Age 0-90 years: 5 excess cases/10000 0people with an average dose of 10mSv  Age 18-65 y: 4 excess cases/10000 18people with an average dose of 10mSv  Natural incidence : 1000-2000 cases 1000-

Genetic Effects


  

Recent information available suggests that the genetic risk 4-5 times less than the earlier 4estimates(ICRP 103,2007) Progeny of the survivors exposed to a dose of 500mGy didnt show a statistically significant increase in genetic disorders when compared to the children of unexposed parents Genetic risk at low doses is negligible ICRP 2007 estimate 1-2 cases /10000/100mSv 1Natural incidence 1000-2000 cases 1000-

Radiation Protection Standards

 Dose

limits to radiation workers are based on the quantitative risk estimates for cancer incidence and genetic effects  Dose limits have been set to ensure the safety of the radiation workers  Present occupational exposure levels make radiation industry a very safe enterprise

SUMMARY OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION



All human beings are exposed to low levels of radiation from terrestrial radioactivity, cosmic rays and internal exposure due to naturally occurring 40 K isotope and inhalation of Rn gas emitting from the earth. Average dose from these sources is 2.5 mSv per year.

High doses of radiation (several Gy) received within a short duration can cause deleterious effects in human beings. A significant level of cell killing in any organ or tissue can result in deterministic effects. These effects do not occur below a threshold dose (1 Gy). These effects cannot occur under normal working conditions but can be seen in accident situations, or in cancer radiotherapy involving several Gy of radiation

Stochastic effects of radiation are caused by the modification of genetic information of cells. Modification of somatic cells may cause cancers whereas the mutation in germ cells (sperm/ovum) has potential to cause genetic disorders in the future generations. These are the two important stochastic effects in human beings.

Low-level radiation exposure (a few mGy) for prolonged period may entail an increased risk of cancer induction in old age. But human populations exposed to low level radiation from occupational exposure, routine diagnostic X-rays and nuclear medicine procedures or to elevated natural background radiation do not show a statistically significant increase in cancer incidence as compared to control populations.

As a result, the cancer risk estimation is based on the excess risk seen in human beings exposed to large doses (1- 4 Gy) of radiation (e.g. A-bomb survivors). The dose response curve is extrapolated to lower doses, assuming a linear-non-threshold hypothesis. The cancer risk due to radiation exposure at low dose rates is estimated to be 4 excess cases per 10,000 people exposed to 10mGy (4% Sv-1). This is negligible compared to 1000-2000 cases that occur due to natural causes.

Radiation induced genetic effects have been seen in experimental animals exposed to large doses (several Gy). Among the 70,000 children born to Abomb survivors exposed to moderate doses of $ 500mSv, there is no increase in the incidence of genetic disorders as compared to the children of the unexposed. Hence, there is no human evidence to the induction of serious genetic effects by radiation.

Human being is more sensitive to radiation effects before birth and also in childhood, than during adulthood. Irradiation in utero (prenatalbefore birth) to doses of the order of 100 mGy entails the risk of malformation, mental retardation and increased risk of childhood cancers (during the first decade after birth). Smaller doses may not involve any significant risk. However, as a measure of precaution, ICRP has recommended a dose limit of 1 mSv to the foetus during the entire period of pregnancy.

Low dose rate exposures are far less hazardous as compared to acute exposures. This is due to the ability of biological systems to repair a large fraction of damage caused by low intensity exposure (protracted or chronic exposures). The risk associated with low dose exposures are considered to be one half of that of acute exposures. At the present levels of average occupational exposures ($2 mSv), i.e., nearly one tenth of the limits recommended by ICRP (20 mSv/y), radiation risks are very small and the nuclear industry can be classified among safe occupations.