Chapter 1 Introduction Mechanical Engineering Design

Seventh Edition

Shigley Mischke Budynas

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

What Is Design?
Engineering design is a systematic process by which solutions to the needs of humankind are obtained
Examples Efficient lawn mulching machine Lightweight,compact wireless communication devices High-temperature resistance material for reentry vehicle

What Is Design?; cont

Teamwork with engineers, scientists, environmentalists, economists, sociologists, legal personnel, marketing personnel, etc Public sentiments as executed through government regulations and political influence (e.g. new transportation vehicle banned in downtown, etc) Engineers must be beware of the impact of our actions on society and the environment

What Is Design?
Objects aesthetic appearance; Like clothes The process of applying the various techniques and scientific principles for the purpose of designing a device, a process or a system in sufficient detail to permit its realization Define, calculate motions, forces, and changes in energy sizes, shapes, materials Failurestress and deflection analysis needed
Applied, inertial loads; Parts geometry; Analysis of the forces, moments, and torques; Dynamics of the system

Engineering Design
Designare; To designate, mark out
To outline, plan or plot, as action or work; To conceive, invent, contrive

Mechanism
A device which transforms motion to some desirable pattern and typically develops low forces and transmits little power

Machine
Contains mechanism which are designed to provide significant forces and transmit power

ABET Definition of Design

The engineering design component of a curriculum must include most of the following features:
development of student creativity, use of open-ended problems, development and use of modern design theory and methodology, formulation of design problem statements and specifications, consideration of alternative solutions,

ABET Definition of Design

feasibility considerations, production processes, concurrent engineering design, and detailed system descriptions.

Further, it is essential to include a variety of realistic constraints such as economic factors, safety, reliability, aesthetics, ethics, and social impact.

Engineering Design
Pencil sharpener Camera shutter Analog clock Folding chair Adjustable table Lamp Umbrella Hood linkage Food blender Bank vault door Transmission Bull dozer Robot Amusement park ride

Introduction to Kinematics
Kinetics
The study of forces on systems in motion

Kinematics
Study of motion without regard to forces F=ma, a= Obtain y Create (design) the desired motion of mechanical part; compute position, velocity, and acceleration

Introduction to Kinematics
James Watt (1736-1819)
Straight-line linkage to guide very long stroke pistons in the new steam engine

Oliver Evans (1755-1819)

U.S. steam engine

P A

Euler (1707-1783)
Separation of dynamic analysis problem into geometrical and mechanical

O2

O4

Kinematics, continued
DAlembert, Kant
Proposed the same idea; Kinematics, kinetics

Ampere (1775-1836)
Cinematique (greek; motion)

Father of modern kinematics

Franz Reuleaux (1829-1905) Alexander Kennedy (1847-1928) translated into English textbook

Design Process

Design Process
Unstructured problem Blank paper syndrome; Dont know how to begin! structuring the unstructured problem synthesis (putting together) analysis Iteration

1.

Identify the need e.g. we need a better lawn mower 2. Background research Patented? GT?

3. Goal Statement
Functional visualization
Design a better lawn mower Design a mean to shorten grass

State problem generally, clearly, concisely

4. Performance Specification
Define what the system must do. (Design specification define how it must do it) Example of lawn mower self-contained power supply corrosion resistance cost less than $150 Emit less than 80 db at 50 ft away to shorten acre of grass per hour, etc

Case Study; Lawn Mowers



During the mid-1960s, a gardening equipment firm was losing market share due to increased competition Design engineers generated a number of new lawn mower such as installing new safety guard, automatic shut-off switches, or with multiple blades for more effective cutting, or mower that could be folded into a compact shape for storage

Case Study; Lawn Mowers

 

But none were so revolutionary to make a resounding success in the market One senior engineer suggested that the original problem statement should be changed to design an effective means of maintaining lawns Brainstorming resulted in 50 ideas that include a chemical additive for lawns

Case Study; Lawn Mowers



One engineer commented that his 3year-old son playing with yo-yo on the lawn, swinging horizontally. He said maybe a high-speed spinning cord could be used to cut grass Focus upon the functions that are desired in a solution to the problem and formulate the problem statement in terms of these functions

Design Process, cont

5. Ideation and Invention
Creative process Idea generation Brainstorming Use analogy (mechanical system electrical system) Inversion Synonyms Move x from A to B push, pull, shove, throw, eject, jump, spill, ???

Design Process; Ideation

Ideation, continued
Large number of ideas frustration incubation eureka iterat e Fascination with a problem (motivation) saturation with the facts, technical ideas, data, and the background of the problem A period of reorganization

Design process, Continued

6. Analysis 7. Selection
Decision Matrix Weight factor

8. Detailed Design
Cad, Iteration

9. Prototyping and testing 10. production

Advice to Design Process

KISS; Keep it simple, stupid There are multiple solutions!!!!!!!
No one has right answer

Physical test is expensive Do as much analysis on paper, computer as possible. Use Mathematical Model Human factors
Ergonomics (Human factors engineering) Steps, car (clutch, brake distance, etc), utilities Uncomfortable to use, tiring, dangerous

*10-step Design Process.

1. Identification of a need 2. Problem definition 3. Search 4. Constraints 5. Criteria

6. Alternative solutions 7. Analysis 8. Decision 9. Specification 10. Communication

10. communication

1.Identify the need 2. Define problem 3. search

9. Specification

Iterative Design Process

8. Decision 4. Constraints

7. Analysis

6. Alternative solutions

5. criteria

Design Process
Design is a structured problem-solving activity Process is a phenomenon identified through step-by-step changes that lead toward a required result Cyclic and iterative process

Design Process; cont

All projects have time and budget constraints
Example a new car must come to the market in a limited time frame even though engineers like to do more

Design phases
Definition of a problem (step 1 identify need and step 2 define problem)

Design Process; cont

Design Phases
Conceptual design phase
Information is gathered (step 3 search) Constraints are established (step 4 constraints) Multitude of possible solutions are generated (step 6 alternatives)

Preliminary design phase

Development of criteria (step 5 criteria) Analysis of potential solutions (step 7 analysis) Select best solution (step 8 decision)

Design Process; cont

Design Phases
Detailed design phase
Selection of stock parts, the design of all other components, and the optimization of the solution (step 9; specification) Optimization considering cost, materials, performance, manufacturability and feasibility
Example; moving product from East Coast to the West Coast; airplanes, trucks and airplanes? New factory?

Design Process; cont

Design Phases
Prototype design phase
Extensive tests before mass production

Final Design (Mass production)

Communicated (step 10) to manufacturing for production

Design and the Customer

The result of the execution of the design process is a new product, process or system Identification of need starts from customers suggestions or requests Final design must satisfy customer requirements or exceed expectation

Design and the Customer

If customer requirements are not clear, engineers must consult with customers Customers must be informed of the design status at all times Both design team and customers may have to modify their requirements in order to meet time, cost, performance and manufacturing constraints

Kano Model
Relationship between degree of achievement and customer satisfaction Basic; customer requirements are simply expected by the customer and assumed to be available Exciting; customer requirements are generally suggested by the design team; usually outside of customer knowledge or vision

Customer Satisfaction

Performance Related Exciting

Degree of Achievement Basic

Example of Kano Model

New electric powered barbeque grill Design team starts from existing successful design basic Customer may specify performance-related items such as ease of cleaning, ease of setting the controls; cooking time, cooking effectiveness New concept, such as programmable cooking cycle, can give unexpected bonus to customer, make it selling point and create excitement.

The Nature of Engineering Design

Is engineering design an art? It is an cognitive process that requires a broad knowledge base, intelligent use of information, and logical thinking Design team consists of engineers, marketing personnel, economists, management, customers, etc

Cognitive Process
Benjamin Bloom (1950s); Blooms taxonomy Knowledge; the ability to recall information, facts, or theories
Example; what was the date of the Challenger space shuttle accident?

Comprehension; ability to make sense (understand)the material

Explain the cause of the Challenger accident

Cognitive Process
Application; ability to use knowledge and comprehension in a new situation and to generalize the knowledge
What would have you done to prevent the Challenge accident?

Analysis; ability to break learned material into its component parts so that the overall structure may be understood

Cognitive Process
Analysis; cont
It includes part identification, relationships of the parts each other and to the whole, and recognize of the organizational principles involved Example; what lessons did we learn about the space program from the Challenger accident?

Cognitive Process
Analysis; cont
The highest level of convergent thinking, whereby the individual recalls and focuses on what is known and comprehended to solve a problem through application and analysis

Cognitive Process
Divergent thinking
The individual process information and produces new insights and discoveries that were not part of the original information

Synthesis; ability to put parts together to form a new plan or idea

Example; propose an alternative to the Challenger O-Ring design that would perform the required function

Cognitive Process
Evaluation; ability to judge the value of material based on specific criteria
Usually the individual is responsible for formulating the criteria to be used in the evaluation Example; assess the impact of the Challenger accident on the U.S. space program

Blooms Taxonomy

Divergent Thought Evaluation Synthesis Convergent Thought Analysis Application Comprehension Knowledge

complexity

Design Steps 1. Identification of a Need

Usually other than the engineer decides that a need exists
Products have life cycle. New profitable products must be developed The consumers are ultimately the judges of whether there is truly a need; any product that doesnt satisfy customers are doomed Citizens of a community decide to have roads, libraries, buildings, etc. Engineers can help decision makers by providing information

1. Identification of a Need, cont

Example Dormitory rooms are crowded with beds, desks, shelving units, etc. There is a need to utilize better dormitory living space for college students Maybe lofts (elevated beds) that can be a combined system with desk, closet, dresser and shelves could be a solution

2. Problem Definition
A loft can be built with a few boards, nails, and a hammer How about stability? Efficiency of assembly? Efficient use of space? Regulation of the college and government? Brainstorming all possibilities that might satisfy the need

2. Problem Definition; cont

Symptom vs. Cause Rainfall drain of a new development Storm sewer systems? It only transport the water problem to downstream for someone else to handle Holding ponds; onsite treatment Real problem is not how to get rid of the rainfall as rapidly as possible, but how to control the water

2. Problem Definition; cont

Solving the Wrong Problem In the 1970s, to reduce auto accident fatalities, using lap and shoulder belts were required The solution technique that was implemented was an interlock system that requires the belts be latched before the auto could be started Drivers attitude was the real problem; it failed

2. Problem Definition; cont

Broad definition of problem may show
Purchase a prefabricated loft system Purchase parts and assemble after sketching a possible solution Rent two rooms and cut a connecting door, so on

Obtain the most concise and complete problem definition State A (Undesirable situation) State B (Desirable situation )

2. Problem Definition; cont

Crowded living conditions Uncrowded living conditions
Too broad

Existing dorm furnishings Existing furnishings with lofted beds

Complete considerations needed; time constraints

Existing dorm beds Lofted beds

Case Study; PS vs DS
State the present or problem state (PS) and the desired state (DS) Then engineers modify either PS statement, the DS statement, or both until there is a satisfactory correlation between the two Example; a student currently enrolled in both engineering design and a physics course PS: I need to study physics DS: I want to earn an A in engineering design

Case Study; PS vs DS
There is no common between them
PS: I need to study physics because I have an exam next week DS: I want to earn an A in engineering design PS: I need to study physics because I have an exam next week, but the only extra time that I can devote to physics is already scheduled for my term project in engineering design DS: I want to earn an acceptable grades in both engineering design and physics

Case Study; PS vs DS
PS: I am not sufficiently prepared for my upcoming physics exam and I also need to work on my term project in engineering design DS: I want to earn an acceptable grades on both my engineering design term project and my physics exam Now a direct and obvious correlation can be seen and solutions can be investigated

Case Study; PS vs DS
Possible solutions
I must become more efficient I will speak with my professor Seek tutoring help I will decrease time to watch Television and devote this time to study I will reformulate my term project so that less time is needed to complete

Design Steps 3. Search

Locating, applying, and transferring information; lots of information is needed Open to many alternative solutions Gathering information may help for a better definition of the problem and a better solution

3. Search; cont
Type of Information
What has been written about it? Is something already on the market that may solve the problem? (already patented? Group technology?) What is wrong with the way it is being done? What is right the way it is being done?

3. Search; cont
Type of Information
Who manufactures the current solution? How much does it cost? Will people pay for a better one if it costs more? How much will they pay (or how bad is the problem)?

3. Search; Source of Information

Existing solutions; reverse engineering Internet search Library search Government documents Professional organizations Trade journals Vendor catalog From experts

3. Search; Example Project

Loft bed state or other government state codes Assemble with simple tools Standard parts as possible Preferred wood construction No guard rail or ladder No need for handicap access

3. Search; Example Project; cont

Survey
If students like loft bed and why If students like current bed and why How much students are willing to pay List of important factors such as durability, accessibility, stability, cost, appearance, easy of assembly, safety and maintenance

4. Constraints
There could be many solutions, but there are physical and practical limitations (constraints)
Examples Market competition
Too expensive Thin laptop or cell phone

Legal restriction Boundary conditions

4. Constraints; Example Project

Example Cost must not exceed $1500 Must meet safety codes Must accommodate a unit bed size of 78 X 36 inches Must be freestanding and cannot affect the existing structure of the room

5. Criteria
Criteria are desirable characteristics of the solution which are established from experience, research, market studies, and customer preferences Criteria are used to judge alternative solutions on a qualitative basis, unless quantitative evaluation by mathematical model is available

5. Criteria; cont
Weighting factor for criteria Typical design criteria
Cost Reliability Weight (either heavy or light) Ease of operation and maintenance Appearance Compatibility

5. Criteria; cont
Typical design criteria
Safety features Noise level Effectiveness Durability Feasibility Acceptance

5. Criteria; Example Project

Stability 15% Easy of assembly 35% Cost 25%

Functionality 25%

6. Alternative Solutions
It is just like selecting the best person among the candidates for a new management position. A list of candidates must be made for interview and review processes Likewise we need a list of possible answers to our problem before selecting the best one

6. Alternative Solutions; cont

The word invention strikes fear into the minds of many people We learned that if we were like the other kids, no one laughed at us If not already done well, few people are willing to try new
Fear that people laugh at us Fear of failure (new experiments fails a lot)

6. Alternative Solutions; cont

There are techniques that can be used to assist us in developing a list of possible solutions Checkoff lists;
The list suggest possible ways that an existing solution to your problem might changed and used Use modify and rearrange to guide or focus on the efforts to obtain a new solution

6. Alternative Solutions; cont

Checkoff lists (cont)
Modify?
Use laminates instead of solid wood Use glue instead of bolts and screws

Rearrange?
Bed on the floor, desk and shelves above Ladder on side of bed instead of end

Ask yourself; Why is the solution like it is? Will change make it better or worse?

6. Alternative Solutions; cont

Brainstorming
The leader states the problem clearly and ideas about its solution are invited About 3-15 people, usually 4-8 works well Free expression is essential; no discouraging word, no evaluation during brainstorming about the idea The leader sets the tone and tempo of the session and provides a stimulus when things begin to drag

6. Alternative Solutions; cont

Brainstorming (cont)
The members of the group should be equals; no reason to impress or support any other member Recorders are necessary

Design Steps 7. Analysis

In order to find the best solution in light of available knowledge and criteria, we must analyze the alternative solutions to determine performance capability Use of mathematical and engineering principles The goal is to obtain quantitative information for the decision step in the design process The time required to produce an analysis is critical

7. Analysis; cont
Many laws of nature; conservation of mass, momentum, energy, etc Mathematical model Graphics Cardboard cutouts Subscale model or pilot plants Balance between accuracy and time & money

Design Steps 8. Decision

There may be no perfect one solution Trade-offs; many alternatives to satisfy criteria Decision is very hard part You need information in order to evaluate each alternative against each of the criteria

8. Decision; cont
Analysis can provide basis for decision If time and money permits, experiment or prototype can help Poor research, a less than adequate list of alternatives, or inept analysis would prevent good decision Decision making is an art and a science

8. Decision; cont
There has been a lot of efforts to make decision process as a science
Probability Statistics Optimization (pay-off function) Utility theory

Design Steps 9. Specification

After designing, it must be clearly defined to others in detail specifically Drawings, database, bill of materials
A sufficient number of databases describing the size and shape of each part Layouts to delineate clearance and operational characteristics Assembly and subassemblies to clarify the relationship of parts

9. Specification; cont
Database; cont
Written notes, standards, specifications, and so on, concerning quality and tolerances A complete bill of materials

Local or national codes and standard must be satisfied Utilize written, spoken, and graphical language in order to develop and interplete specifications

Design Steps 10. Communication

Great emphasis nowadays Selling your design and idea If if your design is superb, you have to convince other people

10. Communication; cont

Written report
Appropriate cover page Abstract Table of contents Body Conclusion and recommendation appendixes

10. Communication; cont

Oral Presentation
Be prepared;
rehearse use adequate audio/visual equipment

Stand in such a way so that you do not detract from what you are saying or showing Look at your audience and maintain eye contact

10. Communication; cont

Project your voice by consciously speaking to the back row Speak clearly

Approaches to Product Development

(a) Over-The-Wall Engineering Approach (From Kalpakjian [1997]). (b) Concurrent Engineering Approach (adapted from Pugh [1996]).

Text Reference: Figure 1.1, page 5

Design of Mechanical Systems

If your only tool is a hammer, then every problem is a nail. Concurrent Engineering Failure
Breaking Completely inoperable Unable to perform the intended function Unreliable or unsafe; need service

Design for Manufacture

Effect of manufacturing and assembly on design of reciprocating power saw. (a) Original design, with 41 parts and 6.37 min assembly time. (b) modified design, with 29 parts and 2.58 min assembly time. [From Boothroyd (1992)].
Text Reference: Figure 1.2, page 14

Safety Factor
Ns=Wallowable/Wdesign Ns>1
Safety factor
Code, experience level, tested?, manned?

Ns=N A,B,C * N

C, D

A: Quality of Materials, workmanship, maintenance, and inspection B: Control over load applied to part C: Accuracy of analysis, experimental data D:Danger to personnel E: Economic impact

Example 1.1. A Wire Rope in Elevator to 20th Floor; 50% Overload; Safety Factor?

A (Quality of Materials, workmanship, maintenance, and inspection) should be very good; life threatening B (Control over load applied to part) can be fair to poor because overload is permitted C (Accuracy of analysis, experimental data) should be good as highly regulated; ASME code

 D (Danger to personnel)very serious E (Economic impact) serious, possible lawsuit Ns=1.6*1.5 = 2.4; but code >7.6

Puglsey Safety Factor Approach

Table 1.1 Safety Factor Characterisics A, B, and C
Characteristica B= g g f p  vg 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7  g  A= g 1.95 1.2 1.45 1.7 C !  f  1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2   1.4 1.75 2.1 2.45  vg 1.3 1.55 1.8 2.05   g g 2.35 1.45 1.75 2.05 !   f 1.6 1.95 2.3 2.65   1.75 2.15 2.55 2.95  vg 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4   g 2.75 1.7 2.05 2.4 !   f 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1   2.1 2.55 3.0 3.45  vg 1.7 2.15 2.4 2.75   g p 2.35 2.75 3.15 1.95 !   f 2.2 2.65 3.1 3.55   2.45 2.95 3.45 3.95 a vg very good, g good, air and p poor quality o materials, orkmanship, maintenance and inspection B control over load applied to part accuracy o stress analysis, experimental data, or experience ith similar parts

Table 1.2: Safety Factor Characteristics D and E

D= ns s E=ns 1. 1.2 E=s 1. 1. E= s 1.2 1. a s= ery serio s, s=serio s and ns=not serio s D=danger to personnel E=economic impact Characteristica s 1. 1. 1.

Usage: ns=ns,xns,y ns=safety factor ns,x is obtained from Table 1.1 ns,y from Table 1.2

Text Reference: Tables 1.1 and 1.2, page 9

Codes and Standards

ANSI American National Standard Institute ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American society of testing and Materials AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association AISI American Iron and Steel Construction AISC American Institute of Steel Construction ISO International standards Organization NFPA National Fire Protection Association

Design for Safety

Redundancy
Active-e.g., two deadbolt locks on a door Passive-e.g.,one deadbolt lock plus a chain

Fail-Safe
If something goes wrong, it goes wrong to a safe way.

Manifest Danger
e.g.,Break system noise, leaking gas tank

SI Units and Prefixes

(a) S I units Quantity S I bas e units Length Mass Time Temperature S I s upplementary unit Plane angle S I derived units Energy Force Power Pressure Work (b) S I prefixes Multiplication factor 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 1 000 000 000 = 109 1 000 000 = 106 1 000 = 103 100 = 102 10=101 0.1=10-1 0.01=10-2 0.001=10-3 0.000 001 = 10-6 0.000 000 001 = 10-9 0.000 000 000 001= 10-12 U nit meter kilogram second kelvin radian joule newton watt pascal joule Prefix tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci centi milli micro nano pico S I s ymbol m kg s K rad J N W Pa J Formula N-m kg-m/s 2 J/s N/m2 N-m S I s ymbol for prefix T G M k h da d c m n p

Table 1.3 SI units and prefixes

Text Reference: Table 1.3, page 19

(a) Fundamental convers ion factors Englis h unit Length Mass Temperature (b) Definitions cceleration o gravity nergy 1 in 1 lbm 1 deg

Exact S I value 0.0254 m 0.453 592 37 kg 5/9

Approximate S I value 0.4536 kg -

Conversion Factors and Definitions

inematic viscosity Volume

(c) U s eful convers ion factors 1 t 0.3048 m 1 lb 4.448 N 1 lb 386.1 lbm-in/s 2 1 kg 9.807 N 1 lb /in2 6895 a 1 ksi 6.895 Mpa 1 Btu 1055 J 1 t-lb 1.356 J 1 hp 746 W 2545 Btu/hr 1 kW 3413 Btu/hr 1 quart 0.000946 m3 0.946 liter 1 kcal 3.968 Btu

Text Re erence: Table 1.4, page 20

Length o er ressure Temperature

1g 9.8066 m/s 2 (32.174 t/s 2 ) Btu (British thermal unit)|amount o energy required to raise 1 lbm o ater 1 deg (1 Btu 778.2 t-lb ) kilocalorie | amount o energy required to raise 1 kg o ater 1 (1 kcal 4187 J) 1 mile 5280 t; 1 nautical mile 6076.1 t. 1 horsepo er 550 t-lb /s 1 bar | 105 a degree ahrenheit t 9/5t + 32 (where t is degrees) (Celsius) degree ankine t t +459.67 elvin t TC +275.15 (exact) 1 poise | 0.1 kg/m-s 1 stoke | 0.0001 m2 /s 1 cubic oot 7.48 gal


Table 1.4 Conversion actors and de initions.

Fig.1.3

Design Considerations
Functionality wear Reliability Cost Life Shape Thermal properties Marketability Liability Strength/stress Corrosion Maintainability Friction Noise Size Surface Maintenance recycling Deflection Safety Utility Weight Styling Control Lubrication Volume

Fig. P1.5

Fig. P1.6

Fig. P1.10