Chapter Eleven

Sampling: Design and Procedures

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Chapter Outline
1) Overview 2) Sample or Census 3) The Sampling Design Process i. ii. Define the Target Population Determine the Sampling Frame

iii. Select a Sampling Technique iv. Determine the Sample Size v. Execute the Sampling Process

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Chapter Outline
4) A Classification of Sampling Techniques i. Nonprobability Sampling Techniques a. Convenience Sampling b. Judgmental Sampling c. ii. Quota Sampling d. Snowball Sampling Probability Sampling Techniques a. Simple Random Sampling b. Systematic Sampling c. Stratified Sampling d. Cluster Sampling e. Other Probability Sampling Techniques
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Chapter Outline
5. Choosing Nonprobability Versus Probability Sampling 6. Uses of Nonprobability Versus Probability Sampling 7. Internet Sampling 8. International Marketing Research 9. Ethics in Marketing Research 10. Summary
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Sample Vs. Census

Table 11.1
Conditions Favoring the Use of Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget 2. Time available 3. Population size 4. Variance in the characteristic 5. Cost of sampling errors 6. Cost of nonsampling errors 7. Nature of measurement 8. Attention to individual cases
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Small Short Large Small Low High Destructive Yes

Large Long Small Large High Low Nondestructive No

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The Sampling Design Process

Fig. 11.1

Define the Population Determine the Sampling Frame Select Sampling Technique(s) Determine the Sample Size Execute the Sampling Process

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Define the Target Population

The target population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent, and time.


 

An element is the object about which or from which the information is desired, e.g., the respondent. A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the element, that is available for selection at some stage of the sampling process. Extent refers to the geographical boundaries. Time is the time period under consideration.
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Define the Target Population

Important qualitative factors in determining the sample size are:
       

the importance of the decision the nature of the research the number of variables the nature of the analysis sample sizes used in similar studies incidence rates completion rates resource constraints
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Sample Sizes Used in Marketing Research Studies

Table 11.2
pe Stud Minimum Size pical Range

r lem identi icati n research (e g market p tential) r lem-s l ing research (e g pricing) r duct tests est marketing studies , radi , r print ad ertising (per c mmercial r ad tested) est-market audits cus gr ups

00 00

,000- , 00 00- 00

00 00 0 0 st res gr ups

00- 00 00- 00 00- 00 0- 0 st res gr ups

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Classification of Sampling Techniques

Fig. 11.2 Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Techniques

Convenience Sampling

Judgmental Sampling

Quota Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

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Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Other Sampling Techniques

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Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected because they happen to be in the right place at the right time. use of students, and members of social organizations mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents department stores using charge account lists people on the street interviews
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A Graphical Illustration of Convenience Sampling

Fig. 11.3
A B C D E

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Group D happens to assemble at a convenient time and place. So all the elements in this Group are selected. The resulting sample consists of elements 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20. Note, no elements are selected from group A, B, C and E.
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Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher.

 

test markets purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research bellwether precincts selected in voting behavior research expert witnesses used in court
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Graphical Illustration of Judgmental Sampling

Fig. 11.3
A B C D E

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The researcher considers groups B, C and E to be typical and convenient. Within each of these groups one or two elements are selected based on typicality and convenience. The resulting sample consists of elements 8, 10, 11, 13, and 24. Note, no elements are selected from groups A and D.
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Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.


The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of population elements. In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgment. Population composition Control Characteristic Sex Male Female Percentage 48 52 ____ 100 Sample composition Percentage 48 52 ____ 100 Number 480 520 ____ 1000
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A Graphical Illustration of Quota Sampling

Fig. 11.3
A B C D E

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A quota of one element from each group, A to E, is imposed. Within each group, one element is selected based on judgment or convenience. The resulting sample consists of elements 3, 6, 13, 20 and 22. Note, one element is selected from each column or group.
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Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random.


After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the target population of interest. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals.

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A Graphical Illustration of Snowball Sampling

Random Selection
A B

Referrals
C D E

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Elements 2 and 9 are selected randomly from groups A and B. Element 2 refers elements 12 and 13. Element 9 refers element 18. The resulting sample consists of elements 2, 9, 12, 13, and 18. Note, there are no element from group E.
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Simple Random Sampling



Each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal probability of being the sample actually selected. This implies that every element is selected independently of every other element.

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A Graphical Illustration of Simple Random Sampling

Fig. 11.4
A B C D E

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Select five random numbers from 1 to 25. The resulting sample consists of population elements 3, 7, 9, 16, and 24. Note, there is no element from Group C.
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Systematic Sampling


The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame. The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer. When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the sample.

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Systematic Sampling


If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic sampling may decrease the representativeness of the sample. For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.

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A Graphical Illustration of Systematic Sampling

Fig. 11.4
A B C D E

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Select a random number between 1 to 5, say 2. The resulting sample consists of population 2, (2+5=) 7, (2+5x2=) 12, (2+5x3=)17, and (2+5x4=) 22. Note, all the elements are selected from a single row.
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Stratified Sampling


A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations, or strata. The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that every population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum and no population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure, usually SRS. A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without increasing cost.
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Stratified Sampling


The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible, but the elements in different strata should be as heterogeneous as possible. The stratification variables should also be closely related to the characteristic of interest. Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification process by being easy to measure and apply.

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Stratified Sampling


In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum in the total population. In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum and to the standard deviation of the distribution of the characteristic of interest among all the elements in that stratum.

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A Graphical Illustration of Stratified Sampling

Fig. 11.4
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Randomly select a number from 1 to 5 for each stratum, A to E. The resulting sample consists of population elements 4, 7, 13, 19 and 21. Note, one element is selected from each column.

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Cluster Sampling


The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters. Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability sampling technique such as SRS. For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically (two-stage).

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Cluster Sampling


Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population. In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies inversely with the size of the cluster.

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A Graphical Illustration of Cluster Sampling 2 Stage

Fig. 11.4
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Randomly select 3 clusters, B, D and E. Within each cluster, randomly select one or two elements. The resulting sample consists of population elements 7, 18, 20, 21, and 23. Note, no elements are selected from clusters A and C.
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Types of Cluster Sampling

Fig 11.5 Cluster Sampling

One-Stage Sampling

Two-Stage Sampling

Multistage Sampling

Simple Cluster Sampling

Probability Proportionate to Size Sampling

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Basic Sampling Techniques

Table 11.3
Technique
Nonprobability Sampling Convenience sampling Judgmental sampling Quota sampling Snowball sampling Probability sampling Simple random sampling (SRS) Systematic sampling

Strengths
Least expensive, least time-consuming, most convenient Low cost, convenient, not time-consuming Sample can be controlled for certain characteristics Can estimate rare characteristics Easily understood, results projectable Can increase representativeness, easier to implement than SRS, sampling frame not necessary Include all important subpopulations, precision Easy to implement, cost effective

Weaknesses
Selection bias, sample not representative, not recommended for descriptive or causal research Does not allow generalization, subjective Selection bias, no assurance of representativeness Time-consuming Difficult to construct sampling frame, expensive, lower precision, no assurance of representativeness. Can decrease representativeness

Stratified sampling Cluster sampling

Difficult to select relevant stratification variables, not feasible to stratify on many variables, expensive Imprecise, difficult to compute and interpret results
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A Classification of Internet Sampling

Fig. 11.6

Internet Sampling

Online Intercept Sampling

Recruited Online Sampling

Other Techniques

Nonrandom Random

Panel

Nonpanel

Recruited Panels
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Opt-in List Rentals

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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Exhibit 11.1

Simple Random Sampling 1. Select a suitable sampling frame 2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (pop. size) 3. Generate n (sample size) different random numbers between 1 and N 4. The numbers generated denote the elements that should be included in the sample
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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Exhibit 11.1, cont. Systematic Sampling

1. Select a suitable sampling frame 2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (pop. size) 3. Determine the sampling interval i:i=N/n. If i is a fraction, round to the nearest integer 4. Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in simple random sampling 5. The elements with the following numbers will comprise the systematic random sample: r, r+i,r+2i,r+3i,r+4i,...,r+(n-1)i
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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Exhibit 11.1, cont. Stratified Sampling

1. Select a suitable frame 2. Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata, H 3. Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the classification variable, each element of the population is assigned to one of the H strata 4. In each stratum, number the elements from 1 to Nh (the pop. size of stratum h) 5. Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on proportionate or disproportionate stratified sampling, where
H

nh = n
h=1

6. In each stratum, select a simple random sample of size nh

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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Exhibit 11.1, cont.

Cluster Sampling

1. Assign a number from 1 to N to each element in the population 2. Divide the population into C clusters of which c will be included in the sample 3. Calculate the sampling interval i, i=N/c (round to nearest integer) 4. Select a random number r between 1 and i, as explained in simple random sampling 5. Identify elements with the following numbers: r,r+i,r+2i,... r+(c-1)i 6. Select the clusters that contain the identified elements 7. Select sampling units within each selected cluster based on SRS or systematic sampling 8. Remove clusters exceeding sampling interval i. Calculate new population size N*, number of clusters to be selected C*= C-1, and new sampling interval i*.
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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Exhibit 11.1, cont. Cluster Sampling

Repeat the process until each of the remaining clusters has a population less than the sampling interval. If b clusters have been selected with certainty, select the remaining c-b clusters according to steps 1 through 7. The fraction of units to be sampled with certainty is the overall sampling fraction = n/N. Thus, for clusters selected with certainty, we would select ns=(n/N)(N1+N2+...+Nb) units. The units selected from clusters selected under two-stage sampling will therefore be n*=n- ns.
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Choosing Nonprobability Vs. Probability Sampling

Table 11.4
a tors Con itions a oring th s o Nonprobability Probability sampling sampling ploratory Con l si

Nat r o r s ar h

lati magnit o sampling an nonsampling rrors

Nonsampling rrors ar larg r omog n o s lo n a orabl

Sampling rrors ar larg r t rog n o s high a orabl

Variability in th pop lation

Statisti al onsi

rations

p rational onsi
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rations

a orabl

n a orabl
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Tennis' Systematic Sampling Returns a Smash

Tennis magazine conducted a mail survey of its subscribers to gain a better understanding of its market. Systematic sampling was employed to select a sample of 1,472 subscribers from the publication's domestic circulation list. If we assume that the subscriber list had 1,472,000 names, the sampling interval would be 1,000 (1,472,000/1,472). A number from 1 to 1,000 was drawn at random. Beginning with that number, every 1,000th subscriber was selected. A brand-new dollar bill was included with the questionnaire as an incentive to respondents. An alert postcard was mailed one week before the survey. A second, follow-up, questionnaire was sent to the whole sample ten days after the initial questionnaire. There were 76 post office returns, so the net effective mailing was 1,396. Six weeks after the first mailing, 778 completed questionnaires were returned, yielding a response rate of 56%.
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