m





Water originated from icy comets that formed in the
outer parts of the solar system.

The Earth and Moon were bombarded by comets

nearly 4 billion years ago.

Water in the rock eventually reached the surface by

outgassing.

The water was held in the atmosphere by Earth¶s

gravity.
 ?
 




water molecule is made up of two positively

charged hydrogen atoms and one negative oxygen
atom.

Opposite charges result in molecules being

attracted to each other.
 ?
 



O states (gas, liquid, solid)

i
3ydrogen bonding

 
 
 
 

Water is an essential resource for life.

Water is a renewable resource that is constantly

cycled through the environment.

Worldwide Equilibrium
- Sea level varies as more or less water is in the
form of glaciers

Distribution of Earth¶s water today

- 2.8% is fresh water
m    
 





   
 

Most of the available freshwater on Earth is in the
form of glaciers, ice sheets, or groundwater, and
thus is not easily available for our use.

Freshwater in rivers and lakes make up less than

1% of all freshwater on Earth!
 ¦

  


3ow is water at the surface lost to the atmosphere?

By evaporation and transpiration.

3ow is water in the atmosphere lost to the surface?

By precipitation.
  



Definition:
The process where water in plants is transferred to
the atmosphere and becomes water vapour.

Water from the roots moves up the stem and is

expelled through openings on the leaves called

 .
 3

 



tmospheric
dvection
Water vapour transported horizontally through the
atmosphere.

Runoff
Water transported on the surface from an area of
higher elevation to a large body of water.

Groundwater
Water beneath the surface below the soil-root zone.
Groundwater is a source of drinking water.
  3  
 
Definition:
The movement and exchange of water among the
land, atmosphere, and oceans through changes in
state (evaporation, condensation, transpiration,
etc).

Water is transported from ocean to land by

advection.

Water is transported from land to ocean by rivers

and streams.
 3  
 

—

Definition:




The condition where the number of molecules
evaporating equals the number of molecules
condensing.

The level of water vapour in the air is the

maximum possible.

*
t saturation,
relative humidity = 100%

—

 







ir may become saturated:

1. By adding water vapour to air that is at a

constant temperature.
Ex: hot shower

2. By mixing cold air with warm, moist air.

O. By cooling the air to the dewpoint

 



Definition:
Tiny particles in the atmosphere upon which water
vapour condenses.

* When is water vapour most likely to condense on

the nuclei?
When the air is cooled.

This occurs because molecules move slower in

cooler air.




—


 



iarticles that may act as condensation nuclei
include:
dust, sand, sulfur particles, smoke, salt, aerosols

itken nuclei: less than 0.2µm in diameter

Large nuclei: between 0.2 and 1.0µm in diameter

Giant nuclei: larger than 1.0µm in diameter

 



3ygroscopic nuclei:
Water seeking nuclei; water vapour condenses on
these nuclei even when relative humidity is less
than 100%.
Condensation nuclei are considered hygroscopic
nuclei.

3ydrophobic nuclei:
Nuclei that resist condensation even when relative
humidity is 100%.
Ex: oil, gas
 3


—


measurement used to describe the amount of

water vapour in the air.

Water vapour is necessary for the formation of clouds

and precipitation.
  
3


There are six ways of measuring humidity:

1.
bsolute 3umidity

2. Specific 3umidity

O. Mixing Ratio

4. Vapour iressure

5. Relative 3umidity

6. Dewpoint
  
3


bsolute 3umidity

The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air.

Specific 3umidity

The mass of water vapour compared to the total

mass of air in a parcel.
  
3


Mixing Ratio

The ratio of the mass of water vapour in a given

volume of air to the mass of dry air.

Vapour iressure

The pressure exerted by the water vapour

molecules in a given volume of air.
 


¦    
Definition:
The amount of water vapour that is necessary to
saturate the air at a given temperature.

Warm air has a greater capacity for water vapour

than cold air.

Why?
Evaporation is less likely to occur in cold air
because of the slower molecular movement.
 


¦    

*
t higher air temperatures,
it takes more water vapour
to saturate the air.

—

  
3


Relative 3umidity (%)

The water vapour content of a parcel of air

compared to the total amount of water vapour the
parcel could hold at that temperature.

R3 = water vapour content * 100

water vapour capacity
 G

3


The daily variation in humidity has an inverse

relationship with the daily variation in
temperature.

*
s air temperature increases (with no change in
water vapour content), relative humidity
decreases.
 G

3


—


This explains why fog tends to occur in the early

morning.
 G

3


Two ways to change relative humidity:

1. Change the water vapour content

2. Change the air temperature

5:00 iM 11:00 iM 5:00

M
  
3


Dewpoint

The temperature to which the air would have to be

cooled in order for it to be saturated.

3igh dewpoint = high water vapour content

dewpoint > 25°C indicates oppressively humid

conditions.
 


* The closer the air temperature and the dewpoint,
the higher the relative humidity.

* When air temperature = dewpoint,

the relative humidity = 100%.

* The dewpoint can never be higher than air temp.

 


City
ir Temp. Dewpoint
(°C) (°C)

2 1

B 18 12

C 7 -5

In what city is relative humidity the highest?

City

In what city is water vapour content highest?

City B
 


Îanuary Îuly

—

 


—


Even though the desert has lower relative humidity,

it holds more water vapour.
Why?
Because the air is warmer.
* Therefore, the dewpoint is the most reliable
measure of water vapour in the air.
 3


 


Sling isychrometer

It measures the difference between wet-bulb

temperature and air temperature.
—

—


3air 3ygrometer

The first instrument to measure

humidity; invented in 1768.

3air expands up to 2.5% in humid conditions.

 
!"
 
Definition:
The lowest temperature that can be reached by
evaporating water off a soaked cloth-covered bulb.

* If the air is dry, more evaporation will occur.

Result: The wet-bulb temperature would be much

cooler than the air temperature.

If the air is moist, evaporation is less likely.

Result: The wet-bulb temperature would be very

close to the air temperature.
  #

 
Dew

Water condensed on objects near

the ground when the temperature
has dropped to the dewpoint.

—

Frozen Dew

Dew that forms on the ground and

then freezes as the temperature
drops below 0°C.
  #

 
Frost

The covering of ice produced on objects when the

temperature has dropped to the dewpoint after
the dewpoint is already below 0°C.

Freeze

This occurs when the air temperature drops below

0°C but it does not reach the dewpoint.
 3 
Definition:

n atmospheric phenomenon caused by particles

obscuring the clarity of the sky.

It typically occurs in urban, heavily populated areas.

It is a threat to respiratory health for those with

weakened immune systems.

Sources: vehicles, industry

 
Definition:
Suspended particles of water droplets or ice crystals
in the atmosphere.

Clouds are where precipitation originates.

3ow are they formed?

Rising air cools to its dewpoint and then condenses
to form water droplets.

Clouds are (mainly) confined to the troposphere.

 

puffy cloud one kmO in size weighs nearly 500

tons.

Clouds are important because:

- they provide precipitation

- regulate Earth¶s energy balance

- they provide vast quantities of heat to the

atmosphere (latent heat)
 # 
 

1. Convection
Surface warms the air above, air rises, cools,
condenses

2. Topography
Mountains force air upward, cools, condenses

O.
scent

low pressure system forces air to rise; it cools,

condenses

4. Fronts

ir is forced upward by a front, cools, condenses

  




The cloud classification system developed by Luke
3oward in 180O.

Clouds are classified according to:

1. 3eight
2. Shape

Three height classifications:

high clouds, middle clouds, low clouds

Two shape classifications:

puffy clouds, flat clouds
 3

 




The height classification forms the prefix of the
cloud name:

3igh (cirro-) clouds

Middle (alto-) clouds
Low (strato-) clouds

The shape classification forms the suffix of the

cloud name:

iuffy (-cumulus) clouds

Flat (-stratus) clouds
 3
 
irefix: Cirro

Where are they located?

bove 7000 m over Earth¶s surface.

They are composed only of ice crystals and rarely

produce Earth-reaching precipitation.

They are generally indicative of fair weather.

 #

irefix:
lto

Where are they located?

Between 2000m and 7000m above the surface.

They are composed of both ice crystals and water

droplets.
 ÿ
irefix: Strato

Where are they located?

Less than 2000m above the surface.

They are composed only of water droplets.

   




0


iuffy, heap-like structure, generally white.



Layered across the sky, grey.

* Cumulus clouds are capable of growing vertically

if the atmosphere is unstable.
  
The prefixes and suffixes are then combined to
form the different names of clouds.

3igh Clouds
Cirrus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus

Middle Clouds

ltostratus,
ltocumulus

Low Clouds
Stratus, Stratocumulus
 


The highest clouds in

the atmosphere.

Cirrus clouds may

produce @.

The shape of cirrus

clouds may be
indicative of upper
air turbulence.

—


 

3igh, puffy, produce a ³mackerel sky´

They are thicker than cirrus clouds.

The entire sheet of cloud cover is referred to as a

cirrocumulus cloud; the individual puffs are
referred to as cloudlets.

They are usually all white.

—
 
 



Sheet-like, thin and white, cover the entire sky,
they may create a halo effect.

They are generally indicative of disturbed weather

arriving in 12 to 24 hours.

—
 
 



They cover the entire sky, the Sun appears
shimmery.

They are darker than

cirrostratus but
lighter than nimbostratus.

—
 
 

iuffy, greyish-white, larger and darker than
cirrocumulus.

Their presence may indicate a good chance of

thunderstorms later in the day.

—
 
 


Grey clouds covering the entire sky.

The common cloud responsible for an overcast sky.

They obscure the Sun but do not produce

precipitation.

They are made up of horizontal layers with a

uniform base.

—


 


iuffy, grey, ominous; rays of sun may shine
through ( 


).

When do they form?

When there is stable air in the mid-troposphere.

(This prevents the cloud from growing any further

in height).

—
 
 



Stratus clouds that produce light to moderate
precipitation.

They are common in the Great Lakes area during

Spring and
utumn.

—

 

These clouds produce thunderstorms.

nvil-shaped; the top of the cloud represents the

tropopause.

There are strong updrafts and downdrafts in the

cloud.

The top of the cloud may penetrate the

stratosphere.

—


 

They produce very heavy rain, hail, strong winds,
and flash flooding.

Most tornadoes originate in cumulonimbus clouds.

They begin as a cumulus cloud and develop

vertically in the presence of unstable air.

3ow is the cloud able to develop so quickly?

By the release of latent heat by condensation.





—


 ÿ

 
They form over mountain ranges, are lens-shaped,
and often mistaken for UFOs.

Mountainous areas cause air to flow in waves over

mountains.

lenticular cloud forms in the crests of waves.

—


 


small cloud appearing above a cumulus cloud.

Formed by strong updrafts, it indicates that a

cumulonimbus cloud is developing.

—


 # 

Sac-like clouds that develop on the underside of
cumulonimbus clouds.

They are indicative of an extremely strong storm.

—


 



rtificial, linear cirrus clouds composed only of ice

crystals.

3ow are they formed?

By the exhaust of aircraft engines high in the
troposphere.

—


 

  


September 11-1O, 2001.
 
Definition:

cloud with its base at the Earth¶s surface; it

reduces visibility to less than 1 km.

Fog over cities may be much thicker than fog over

oceans because of pollutants.

Fog could become acidic (with the addition of sulfur).

s temperature increases, fog droplets evaporate.

 G 



The most common type of fog.

It occurs at night by the Earth emitting longwave

radiation to space thus cooling the surface.

When the air above cools to the dewpoint, fog forms.

—

 



dvection is the horizontal

movement of air.

—
 This fog is common in areas

near water. San Francisco is
famous for this type of fog.
 ?
Fog that develops due to warm air cooling as it rises.

It occurs when air is lifted over topographic barriers.

It is common in the Rocky Mountain foothills.

 3 


The objective of fog harvesting is to collect water from
the atmosphere by using a series of nets.

Nets are lined up on high mountain ridges; when fog

rolls in, droplets attach to the nets, flow down the
nets, and are carried by pipes to storage tanks.

dvantages:

- inexpensive to build and maintain

- reduces the need for trucking large amounts of water

 
  
Where is fog most common?
In
tlantic Canada and the B.C. coast.

Where is fog least common?

In the prairies and the far north.

St. Îohn¶s has the highest annual number of days

with fog (118 days).

Out of 100 cities, Windsor is the 46th foggiest city in

Canada (29 days of fog per year).