c
 

 


 

‡ Elements
Elements:: simplest form of a
substance - cannot be broken down
any further without changing what it
is
‡ Atom
Atom:: the actual basic unit -
composed of protons, neutrons,
and electrons



‡ Just like cells are the basic unit of life,
the ATOM is the basic unit of matter.
‡ They are very small. If placed side by
side one million would stretch a distance
of 1cm.
‡ The atom Particle
is made up of 3 particles.
Charge
PROTON +

NEUTRON NEUTRAL

ELECTRON -
‡ Electrons are not present within the atom,
instead THEY REVOLVE AROUND THE
NUCELUS OF THE ATOM & FORM THE
ELECTRON CLOUD
‡ Draw a helium atom. Indicate where the
protons, neutrons and electrons are.
NEUTRONS
PROTONS
- ATOMIC # = 2 (PROTONS)
+ +
ELECTRONS - ATOMIC MASS = 4
(PROTONS &
NEUTRONS)



‡ atoms of the same element that HAVE A
DIFFERENT NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
‡ Some isotopes are radioactive. This means
that their nuclei is unstable and will break
down at a CONSTANT RATE over time.
‡ There are several practical uses for
radioactive isotopes:
1. CARBON DATING
2. TRACERS
3. KILL BACTERIA / CANCER CELLS



‡ a substance formed by the chemical
combination of 2 or more elements in
definite proportions
² Ex: water, salt, glucose, carbon dioxide
‡ The cell is a COMPLEX CHEMICAL
FACTORY containing some of the same
elements found in the nonliving
environment.

‡ carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),

and nitrogen (N) are present in the
greatest percentages


 






‡ Organic - Contain C, H, and O in some

ratio (usually referred to as chemicals
of life)
² Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids

‡ Inorganic - usually "support" life - no

specific ratio of C, H, and O
² Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
  
c


‡ Chemical bonds hold the atoms in a

molecule together.

‡ There are 2 types of chemical bonds

IONIC and COVALENT

 
c

‡ Occur when 1 or more electrons are
TRANSFERRED from one atom to another.
‡ When an atom loses an electron it is a
POSITIVE charge.
‡ When an atom gains an electron it is a
NEGATIVE charge
‡ These newly charged atoms are now called
IONS
² Example: NaCl (SALT)

 
c


‡ Occur when electrons are SHARED by

atoms.
‡ These new structures that result from
covalent bonds are called MOLECULES
‡ ** In general, the more chemical bonds a
molecule has the more energy it contains
SHARING IS CARING!
 
‡ Water is not always pure. It is often found as
part of a mixture.
‡ A mixture is a material composed of TWO
OR MORE ELEMENTS OR COMPOUNDS
THAT ARE PHYSICALLY MIXED
² Ex: salt & pepper mixed, sugar and sand ² can
be easily separated



Two parts:
‡ SOLUTE ² SUBSTANCE THAT IS BEING
DISSOLVED (SUGAR / SALT)
‡ SOLVENT - the substance in which the
solute dissolves
‡ Materials that do not dissolve are known as
SUSPENSIONS..
SUSPENSIONS
² Blood is the most common example of a
suspension.
² Cells & other particles remain in suspension.


‡ The chemical symbols and numbers
that compose a compound ("recipe
("recipe")
")
‡ Structural Formula ² Line drawings of
the compound that shows the
elements in proportion and how they
are bonded
‡ Molecular Formula ² the ACTUAL
formula for a compound
C2H6O
  

c 
‡ Acids: always (almost) begin with "H"
because of the excess of H+ ions
(hydrogen)
² Ex: lemon juice (6), stomach acid (1.5), acid
rain (4.5), normal rain (6)
Facts about Acids
‡ Acids turn litmus paper BLUE and usually
taste SOUR
SOUR..
‡ You eat acids daily (coffee, vinegar, soda,
spicy foods, etc«)
  

c 
‡ Bases: always (almost) end with -OH
because of the excess of hydroxide ions
(Oxygen & Hydrogen)
² EX: oven cleaner, bleach, ammonia, sea water,
blood, pure water
Facts about Bases
‡ Bases turn litmus BLUE
BLUE..
‡ Bases usually feel SLIPPERY to touch and
taste BITTER
BITTER..

 !

‡ When an acid reacts with a base to produce

a salt and water.
!
 
‡ measures degree of
substance alkalinity or
acidity

‡ Ranges from 0 to 14

‡ 0 ² 5 strong acid
‡ 6-7 neutral
‡ 8-14 strong base
‡ The goal of the body is to maintain
HOMEOSTASIS (neutrality) ² to do this when
pH is concerned, we add weak acids & bases
to prevent sharp changes in pH.

‡ These are called BUFFERS

 "
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 c
  

‡ Living things use carbohydrates as a key

source of ENERGY
ENERGY!!
‡ Plants use carbohydrates for structure
(CELLULOSE
CELLULOSE))
² include sugars and complex carbohydrates
(starches)
² contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen (the hydrogen is in a 2:1 ratio to oxygen)
! %"!
+!&!
!(!,

‡ all have the formula C6 H12 O6

‡ all have a single ring structure
² (glucose is an example)
! %"!
+"-
!(!,

‡ all have the formula C12 H22 O11

‡ sucrose (table sugar) is an example
'! %"!

‡ Formed of three or more simple sugar units

‡ Glycogen - animal starch stored in liver &
muscles
‡ Cellulose - indigestible in humans - forms cell
walls
‡ Starches - used as energy storage
 #

&!.

-%'"!
$&"

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"#0

%'"
'%!!

‡ Combining simple molecules to form a more

complex one with the removal of water
² ex. monosaccharide + monosaccharide ----
---->>
disaccharide + water
² (C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 ----
---->> C12H22O11 + H2O
‡ Polysaccharides are formed from repeated
dehydration syntheses of water
² They are the stored extra sugars known as
starch
'"'!!

‡ Addition of WATER to a compound to

SPLIT it into smaller subunits
² (also called chemical digestion)
² ex. disaccharide + H2O ---
--->>
monosaccharide + monosaccharide

C12 H22 O11 + H2 O ---

--->> C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6
!"!
+!,
‡ Fats, oils, waxes, steroids
‡ Chiefly function in energy storage,
protection, and insulation
‡ Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but
the H:O is not in a 2:1 ratio
‡ Tend to be large molecules -- an example of
a neutral lipid is below
‡ Neutral lipids are formed from the union of
one glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids
‡ 3 fatty acids + glycerol ----
---->> neutral fat (lipid)
‡ Fats -- found chiefly in animals
‡ Oils and waxes -- found chiefly in plants
‡ Oils are liquid at room temperature, waxes are
solids
‡ Lipids along with proteins are key
components of cell membranes
‡ Steroids are special lipids used to build many
reproductive hormones and cholesterol

 
‡ contain the elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen
‡ composed of MANY amino acid subunits
‡ It is the arrangement of the amino acid that
forms the primary structure of proteins.
‡ The basic amino acid form has a carboxyl
group on one end, a methyl group that only
has one hydrogen in the middle, and a amino
group on the other end.
‡ Attached to the methyl group is a R group.
group.
AN R GROUP IS ANY GROUP
OF ATOMS ² THIS CHANGES
THE PROPERTIES OF THE
PROTEIN!

 
1

‡ There are certain groups of atoms that are
frequently attached to the organic molecules
we will be studying, and these are called
functional groups.
groups.
‡ These are things like hydroxyl groups which
form alcohols
alcohols,, carbonyl groups which form
aldehydes or ketones,
ketones, carboxyl groups
which form carboxylic acids,
acids, and amino
groups which form amines
amines..
2

 !

‡ Growth and repair

‡ Energy
‡ Buffer -- helps keep body pH constant
!!"

‡ formed from two amino acid subunits

‡ Formed by the process of Dehydration
Synthesis
‡ amino acid + amino acid ----- dipeptide + water
'"'!!
$

"!!"

‡ Breaking down of a dipeptide into amino

acids
‡ dipeptide + H2O ---
--->> aminoacid + amino acid
'!!"
+!,

‡ composed of three or more amino acids

linked by synthesis reactions
‡ Examples of proteins include insulin,
hemoglobin, and enzymes.
‡ ** There are an extremely large number of
different proteins.
‡ The bases for variability include differences
in the number, kinds and sequences of
amino acids in the proteins
 
 
‡ in all cells
‡ composed of NUCLEOTIDES
‡ store & transmit heredity/genetic information
‡ Nucleotides consist of 3 parts:
‡ 1. 5-Carbon Sugar
‡ 2. Phosphate Group
‡ 3. Nitrogenous Base

+".'- 
 ",

‡ contains the genetic code of instructions that

direct a cell's behavior through the synthesis of
proteins
‡ found in the chromosomes of the nucleus (and a
few other organelles)

+- 
 ",

‡ directs cellular protein synthesis

‡ found in ribosomes & nucleoli
  
 


‡ a process that changes one set of chemicals

into another set of chemicals
‡ REACTANTS ² elements or compounds that
enter into a chemical reaction
‡ PRODUCTS ² elements or compounds that are
produced in a chemical reaction
‡ Chemical reactions always involve the
breaking of bonds in reactants and the
formation of new bonds in products.
‡ In a reaction, energy is either TAKEN IN
(ENDOTHERMIC
ENDOTHERMIC)) or GIVEN OFF
(EXOTHERMIC
EXOTHERMIC))

‡ Can you think of an everyday example

of each type of reaction?
'&!
"
'&


‡ catalyst
catalyst:: inorganic or organic substance
which speeds up the rate of a chemical
reaction without entering the reaction itself
‡ enzymes
enzymes:: organic catalysts made of protein
‡ most enzyme names end in -ase
‡ enzymes lower the energy needed to start a
chemical reaction. (activation
(activation energy)
energy)
‡ begin to be destroyed above 45øC. (above this
temperature all proteins begin to be
destroyed)
It is thought that, in order for an enzyme to affect the rate of
a reaction, the following events must take place.
1. The enzyme must form a temporary association with the
substance or substances whose reaction rate it affects.
These substances are known as substrates
substrates..
2. The association between enzyme and substrate is
thought to form a close physical association between
the molecules and is called the enzyme
enzyme--substrate
complex..
complex
3. While the enzyme
enzyme--substrate complex is formed, enzyme
action takes place.
4. Upon completion of the reaction, the enzyme and
product(s) separate
separate.. The enzyme molecule is now
available to form additional complexes.
#
"
'&!
#/0
‡ substrate
substrate:: molecules upon which an enzyme
acts

‡ the enzyme is shaped so that it can only lock

up with a specific substrate molecule

enzyme
substrate ------------->
-------------> product
 /
"
3'
%'
‡ each enzyme is specific for one and ONLY
one substrate (one lock - one key)
‡ this theory has many weaknesses, but it
explains some basic things about enzyme
function
 !
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'&


1. pH - the optimum (best) in most living things

is close to 7 (neutral)
‡ high or low pH levels usually slow enzyme
activity
‡ A few enzymes (such as gastric protease)
work best at a pH of about 2.0
2. Temperature - strongly influences enzyme
activity
‡ optimum temperature for maximum enzyme
function is usually about 35-
35-40 C.
‡ reactions proceed slowly below optimal
temperatures
‡ above 45 C most enzymes are denatured
(change in their shape so the enzyme active
site no longer fits with the substrate and the
enzyme can't function)
3. Concentrations of Enzyme and Substrate
‡ ** When there is a fixed amount of enzyme
and an excess of substrate molecules -- the
rate of reaction will increase to a point and
then level off.