Foundations and OD

interventions
Models and theories

Change is a three-stage process

Stage 1- Unfreezing the old behavior/ situation
Stage 2 - Moving to a new level of behaviors
Stage 3 - Refreezing the behavior at the new level

Kurt Lewin

Edgar Schein modified this theory by specifying psychological

mechanisms involved in each stage

Later Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley

expanded this model into seven-stage model
Models and theories Contd..
Seven stage model representing the consulting process

Phase 1 Developing a need for change.

Phase 2 Establishing the change relationship.

Phase 3 Diagnosing the client system’s problem.

Examining alternative routes, establishing goals and
Phase 4
intentions of action.
Phase 5 Transforming intentions into actual change efforts.

Phase 6 Stabilizing change.

Phase 7 Achieving a terminal relationship.

Models and theories Contd..
1. The culture track

2. The management skills track

3. The team-building track

Ralph Kilmann
Five critical leverage 4. The strategy-structure track
points (tracks) for
organization change 5. The reward system track

Track 1 : Enhances trust, communication, information sharing

Track 2 : Provide new ways of coping with complex problems
Track 3 : Infuses new culture and updated management skills
Track 4 : Develops revised strategy plan for organization
Track 5 : Establishes performance based reward system
Models and theories Contd..

The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Change

Warner Burke First order change (Transactional change)

Change
Second order change (Transformational change)
OD interventions directed towards structure, management
practices, and systems (policies & procedures) result in first
order change.
OD interventions directed towards mission and strategy,
leadership, and organization culture result in second order
change.
 ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT( First)
Management
Practices
Systems
Policies &
Structure
Procedures

Work
Unit Climate

Motivation

Task Individual
Individual
Requirements & Individual & Needs
Needs &
Individual & Values
Values
Organizational
Skills/Abilities
Performance
 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT(Second)

External
Environment.

Leadership
Mission & Organizational
Strategy Culture

Individual &
Organizational
Performance
The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Performance and Change

External
Environment

Leadership
Mission & Organizational
Strategy Culture

Management Systems
Structure Practices (Policies &
Procedures)

Work Unit
Climate

Task Requires Motivation Individual

& Individual Needs & Values
Skills/ Abilities
Individual &
Organizational
Performance
Models and theories Contd..

Porras & Robertson Model of

Organizational Change

Jerry Porras Peter Robertson

OD interventions alter features of the work setting causing

changes in individuals’ behaviors, which in turn lead to
individual and organizational improvements.
1 Organizing arrangements
2 Social factors
Work setting factors
3 Physical setting
4 Technology
Models and theories Contd..
Organizing arrangements
Goals, strategies, structure,
policies, procedures

Social Factors
Culture, management style,
informal networks, individual
attributes

Physical Settings
Space configuration, physical
ambiance

Technology
Machinery, tools, IT, job
design
Systems Theory

Organizations are open systems in active

exchange with their environment

David A. Nadler
The Congruence Model
 SYSTEMS THEORY-foundation of O. D.
Systems theory is one of the most powerful
conceptual tools available for understanding the
dynamics of organizations and organizational
change.
Definitions of Systems:
A system is a “set of objects together with
relationships between the objects and between their
attributes.”
A System is a set of “elements standing in
interaction”.
A system denotes interrelatedness,
interconnectedness and interdependency among
elements in a set that constitutes an identifiable
whole or gestalt.
Systems Theory
Sociotechnical Systems Theory (STS)

All organizations comprised of two

interdependent systems:
1. Social system
2. Technical system
Eric Trist

To achieve high productivity and employee satisfaction,

organizations must optimize both systems - Job redesign,
organization restructuring.
Changes in one system affect the other system.

Open Systems Thinking (OST) - Learning organizations

(Senge)
 Participation and
Empowerment
Participation of all vertical groups
•
• Group Dynamics
• Increase involvement and participation
• Quinn and Spreader
– Mechanistic – top down delegation of decision
making and control
– Organic- is bottom up and less control
– Risk taking, people initiatives, growth and change=
• Empowerment means trusting people and
tolerating their imperfections
 Teams and Teamwork
• Teams in organizations –
– SDT – Self directed teams,
– QC- quality circles
– HPO- High performance Organizations
– HPWs- High Performance Work Systems etc.,

• Teams – socio cultural norms

• Working together to accomplish goals
– Synergy

• Satisfy the needs for interaction, status, recognition

 Parallel learning structure
• Address the problems that inhibit
learning
• Steering committee – to think and
behave in ways that are different
from the normal roles and rules of
the organization
 A normative re-educative
strategy
• Change – frame breaking/ bending
Applied Behavioral Science
OD is an application of behavioral science
Pure/ Basic Science Applied Science
Generating knowledge Knowledge to Solve
practical problems

Practice Theory : Diagnosing the situation, then selecting and

implementing treatments based on diagnosis, and finally evaluating the
effects of the treatments.

Applied Science
Practice Research Practice Theory

What helps me solve this problem?

Applied Behavioral Science

Pure/ basic science

What helps me solve real problems?

Behavioral Science Research Behavioral Science Theory

 Applied Behavioral Science
• Importance of social norms in
determining perceptions, motivations
and behaviours (Sherif)
• Exchange theory -balance theory
• Role theory – Mead
• Motivation theories
• Social Cognitive theory, theories of
learning, attitude change theories
Action Research
Data Collection
Feedback of data to client system members Diagnostic

Action planning based on the data Participant

Types
Taking action Empirical

Evaluating results of actions Experimental

Diagnostic Researcher enters a problem situation, diagnoses it and make

recommendations for remedial treatment (recommendations may not
be put into effect by client group)
Participant People who are to take action are involved in the entire process
from the beginning (involvement increases the likelihood of
carrying out the actions once decided upon)
Empirical Researcher keeps the systematic, extensive record of what he/ she did
and what effects it had (may encounter situations too divergent from
one another, which may not permit generalizations)
It is controlled research on the relative effectiveness of various
Experimental techniques (is difficult to do when client wants immediate
answers)
Managing the OD Process
Three basic components of OD programs:

Diagnosis Continuous collection of data

about total system, its
subunits, its processes, and its
culture
Action All activities and interventions
designed to improve the
organization’s functioning
Program All activities designed to
management ensure success of the program
 Diagnosing Organizational Subsystems
Diagnostic targets Information sought
The total organization Q) What is organization’s culture?
Q) Are organizational goals and strategy
understood and accepted?
Q) What is organization’s performance?
Large and complex Q) What are the unique demands on this
subsystems subsystem?
Q) Are organization structures and processes
related to unique demands?
Q) What are the major problems confronting this
subsystem?
Small and simple Q) What are major problems of the team?
subsystem Q) How can team effectiveness be improved?
Q) Do individuals know how their jobs relate to
organizational goals?
Intergroup subsystems Q) How does each subsystem see the other?
Q) What problems do the two groups have in
working together?
Q) How can they collaborate to improve
performance of both groups?
Individuals Q) Do people perform according to organization’s • Interviews
expectations?
Q) Do they need particular knowledge or skills? • Data available with HR department
Q) What career development opportunities do they
have/ want/ need?
Methods of Diagnosis
• Examination of organizational records –
rules, regulations, policies
• Questionnaire survey
• Interviews (both group & individual)
• Questionnaire survey
• Interviews
• Observations
• Organization records
• Individual interviews
• group meeting to review the interview data
• Questionnaires
• Observation of staff meetings and other day-
to-day operations
• Interviews of each subsystem followed by
‘sharing the data meeting’
• Flowcharting critical processes
• Meetings between both groups
• Information from diagnostic meetings

Roles Q) Is the role defines adequately? • Role analysis

Q) What is the ‘fit’ between person and role? • Observations
Q) Is this the right person for this role? • Interviews
 Diagnosing Organizational Processes
Organizational Information sought Methods of Diagnosis
Processes
Communication Q) Is communication open or closed? • Observations – in meetings
patterns, styles & flows Q) Is communication directed upward, downward, • Questionnaires
laterally? • Interviews and discussion with group
Q) Are communications filtered? ….. Why? How? members
Goal setting Q) Do people set goals? • Questionnaires
Q) Who participates? • Interviews
Q) Do they possess necessary skills for effective • Observations
goal setting?
Decision making, Q) Who makes decisions? • Observations of problem-solving meetings
problem solving & Q) Are they effective? • Analysis of videotaped sessions
action planning Q) Are additional decision making skills needed? • Organizational records
Conflict resolution and Q) Where does conflict exist? • Interviews
management Q) Who are involved parties? • Flowcharting critical processes
Q) How is it being managed? • Meetings between both groups

Superior-subordinate Q) What are the prevailing leadership styles? • Questionnaires

relations Q) What problems arise between superiors and •Interviews
subordinates?
Strategic management Q) Who is responsible for ‘looking ahead’ and • Interviews of key policy makers
& long range planning making long term decisions? • Group discussions
Q) Do they have adequate tools and support? • Examination of historical records
Q) Have the recent long range decisions been
effective?
Diagnosis – The Six-Box Model

Purposes

Marvin Weisbord
Weisbord identifies six Relationships Structure
critical areas where
things must go right if
Leadership
organisation is to be
successful. According
to him, the consultant
Helpful
must attend to both Rewards
Mechanisms
formal and informal
aspects of each box.
En
v ir
on
m

This model is still widely

en
t

used by OD practitioners
Actions
Interventions are the actions taken to produce desired changes.
Four conditions that give rise to the need for OD interventions:
1. The organisation has a problem
(corrective action – to fix it)
2. Organization sees an unrealized opportunity
(enabling action – to seize the opportunity)
3. Features of organization are out of alignment
(alignment action – to get things back ‘in sync’)
4. Yesterday’s vision is no longer good enough
(action for new vision – actions to build necessary structures,
processes and culture to make new vision a reality)
 Program Management
Cummings and Worley identified 5 sets of activities required for
effective change management:

Motivating Change

Creating a Vision

Effective Change
Developing Political Support
Management

Managing the Transition

Sustaining Momentum
 Program Management Contd..
Kotter’s 8-stage process for managing organizational change:
1 Establishing a sense of urgency

2 Creating a guiding coalition

HBR, Mar-Apr 1995, p.61

3 Developing a vision and strategy
John P. Kotter
4 Communicating the change vision

5 Empowering a broad base of people to take action

6 Generating short term wins

7 Consolidating gains and producing even more change

8 Anchoring (institutionalizing) the new approaches into the culture

 Action Research and OD
• Dual purpose of action research:
– Making action more effective.
– Building a body of scientific knowledge
around that action.
• Action refers to: Programs and
interventions designed to solve
problems and improve conditions.

28
 A Process and An Approach
• Action research is a process, an ongoing series of
events and actions.
• Definition:
– Action research is the process of systematically
collecting research data about an ongoing system
relative to some objective, goal, or need of that system;
– feeding these data back into the system;
– taking actions by altering selected variables within the
system based both on the data and on hypotheses; and
– evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data.

29
• Action research also known as an
approach to problem solving.
• Example: Herbert Shepard, 1969,
conducted an action research on a
group of oil refineries.
– Highlighted the relations among goals
(objectives), planning, and action in a
diagram.

30
 Action Research Model
(Problem solving approach)

Action Action
Objective
Step 1 Step 2

Planning Planning
Fact
Finding

31
 Examples of AR in OD
• Gavin - conducted a comprehensive survey
feedback program in a mining company of
approximately 400 employees.
• Eberhardt - conducted an action research
project designed to improve the
effectiveness of health care teams at a
medical rehabilitation hospital.
• Santalained and Hunt – who used OD
program in a Finnish banking group.

32
Overview of OD
Interventions
Example : Team Building Interventions
Diagnostic meetings
Team building focused on goal
setting, decision making, problem
Intact work solving etc.
teams Building & mainitaining effective
interpersonal relationships
Role analysis techniques for role
Team building clarification & defination
interventions
Team building focused on task
accomplishment
Special teams Task allocations
Interunit conflicts
Role negotiation
 Integration of Change
Strategies (part 1 of 2)
OD deals with change from integrated
standpoint that considers:
Structure Technology
Behavior
Interdependence of sub-elements
(departments) needs to be
considered.
 Figure 8.1
Integrated Approach to Change
“Organization Iceberg” Approach to OD
 Selecting an OD
Intervention
Practitioner and client consider:
• Potential results of technique.
• Potential implementation of
technique including costs versus
benefit.
• Potential acceptance of technique.
 Overview of Major OD
Intervention Techniques
Intervention techniques focus on 4
categories:
1. Individual or interpersonal level.
2. Team or group level.
3. Intergroup level.
4. Total organizational system level.
OD Interventions: An Overview (part 1 of 2)
OD Interventions: An Overview (part 2 of 2)
 Grid OD Program
Grid OD is systematic approach to achieve corporate
excellence by changing basic culture of system. – Blake
and Mouton.
In a six-phase program lasting about 3 or 5 years, an
organization can move systematically from the stage of
examining managerial behaviour and style to the
development and implementation of an “ideal strategic
corporate model”.
Phases: Prephase, The managerial Grid, Teamwork
Development, Intergroup Development, Developing an
Ideal Strategic Corporate Model, Implementing the Ideal
Strategic Model, Systematic Critique.
Starts with focus on managerial styles.
Moves through phases involving the work team and
culture of organization.
Six Grid Phases (part 1 of 3)

Phase 1: Grid seminars. Someone in

management position attends
seminar.
Phase 2: Teamwork development.
Begins with top manager and
continues through entire
organization.
 Six Grid Phases (part 2 of 3)

Phase 3: Intergroup development.

Sessions attended by key members
of 2 segments where barriers exist.
Phase 4: Development of ideal
strategic model. Provides skills to
move to systematic development.
 Six Grid Phases (part 3 of 3)

Phase 5: Implement ideal strategic

model. Organization divided into
planning teams and model is
implemented.
Phase 6: Systematic examination of
progress toward change goals.
 Process Consultation
Interventions
• It is similar to team-building interventions except that in
process consultation greater emphasis is placed on
diagnosing and understanding and understanding process
events.
•
Process consultation (PC) represents an approach or a
method for intervening in an ongoing system.
• The crux of this approach is that the consultant works
with individuals and groups to help them learn
about human and social processes and learn to
solve problems that stem from process events.
In coaching and counselling interventions the consultant
is placed in the role of responding to such questions from
groups and individuals
 A Role Negotiation
•
Technique
It is used when the causes of team ineffectiveness are based on people’s
behaviors that they are unwilling to change because it would mean
a loss of power or influence to the individual.
•
The technique is basically an imposed structure for controlled negotiations
between parties in which each party agrees in writing certain behaviors in
return for changes in behavior by the other.
•
The first step is contrast setting. The consultant sets the climate and
establishes the ground rules.
•
The second step is issue diagnosis, where individuals think about how
their own effectiveness can be improved if others change their work
behaviors.
•
The next step is the influence trade or negotiation period, in which two
individuals discuss the most important behavior changes they want from
the other and the changes they are willing to make themselves.
 Role Analysis Technique
• Is designed to clarify role expectations and obligations of team members to
improve team effectiveness. John M. Thomas developed a technique for
clarifying the roles of the top management of a new organization in India.
•
A role being defined is called the focal role. The first step consists of an
analysis of the focal role initiated by the focal role individual.
The second step examines the focal role incumbent’s expectations of
others.
•
The third step consists of explicating other’s expectation and desired
expectation of the focal role.
•
Then, the role profile is written. The focal role assumes responsibility for
making a summary of the role as it has been defined.
Third-Party Consultation
Uses third party, usually outside
practitioner, to help open
communications, level power, and
confront problems between groups.

Third party provides diagnostic insight

and is source of emotional support
and skills.
 Conflict Styles

An Experiential Approach
to Organization Role negotiation - change
Development 7th edition
 Organization Mirror
Gives feedback to teams on how other
elements of organization view them.

Units meet together to process data

with objective of identifying problems
and formulating solutions.
 Survey feedback
•  It is the process of systematically collecting data about the
system and feeding back the data for individuals and
groups at all levels of the organization to analyze, interpret
the meaning of, and design corrective action steps upon.
• This approach is based on the Systems 1-4T”management
system”.
• This attitude or climate survey, coupled with a series of
workshops involving work teams at successively lower
levels of the organization, can be used to create action
plans and change across a wide range of variables in
the social, structural, goal, and task subsystems of
an organization.
 Systems 1-4T”. 
• Management typology based largely on measures
pertaining to leadership, organizational climate,
and job satisfaction. Using Survey of Organizations
(a 105-item questionnaire), Likert found that
organizations were markedly different in terms of
these characteristics.
• System 1 “exploitive authoritative”, System
2 “benevolent authoritative” System 3
“consultative”. System 4 “participative
group”
 Profile of Organization Characteristics

An Experiential Approach
Chapter 14
to Organization
Slide 56
Development 7th edition
 Sensitivity training
• Team building - Sensitivity training to the actual
work groups in various departments. These work
groups consist of peers and a supervisor.

• Sensitivity training is called a laboratory as it is

conducted by creating an experimental laboratory
situation in which employees are brought
together.

• The Team building technique and training is

designed to improve the ability of the employees
to work together as teams.
Interdependency technique
• Improves cooperation among the
members of the group.
• In small groups of around ten
persons, in face to face they
interview each other about the
important interdependencies
between their two jobs and/or units.
 GROUP Diagnostic Meeting
• The purpose of the formal group diagnostic meeting is to conduct a
general critique of the performance of the group, that is, to take
stock of “where are we going?” and “how are we doing?”, and to
surface and identify problems so that they may be worked on. The
leader and the consultants use to discuss the idea first, and if it appears
that a genuine need for diagnostic meeting the idea is put into the group.
•
There are several ways of getting the diagnostic data out:
-A total-group discussion
-Sub grouping, with more intensive discussions
-Pairing discussing their ideas with each other reporting back to the total
group.
The primary focus of the group diagnostic meeting is to surface issues and
problems that should be worked on and decide how to take action steps.
It is good to criticize itself.
 Group Team Building
•
Meeting
It has the goal of improving the team´s effectiveness through better
management of task demands, relationship demands, and group
processes. The group critiques its performance, analyzes its way of doing things
and attempts to develop strategies to improve its operation.

• The team-building session is usually initiated by the manager in consultation with

the third party. The idea is then tested for reactions with the group.

• The usual practice for these sessions is to have the

consultant interview each of the group members and
the leader prior to the meeting, asking them what the
strengths of the group are, what their problems are,
how they think the group functions and what
obstacles are getting in the way of the group
performing better. The group examines and discusses
the issues and develops alternatives.
 Table 11.1
Sample Intergroup Meeting Listing
 The Appreciations and
Concerns Exercise
• It is appropriate if interview data suggest that one of the
deficiencies in the interactions of members of a group is lack of
expression of appreciation, and another deficiency is the
avoidance of confronting concerns and irritations.
•
First, the facilitator ask each member to jot down to three
appreciations for each member of the group.
•
Secondly, they do the same with minor irritations that interferes
in communication.
•
The third step is when the facilitator make some suggestions to
motivate conversation about that problems.
 Appreciative Inquiry
• Is based on the assertion that the organization “is a miracle
to be embraced” rather than a “problem to be solved”.
• It is based on interviews and discussions in small groups or
organization-wide meetings centering on such core questions
as:
-What have been the peak moments in the life of this
organization when people felt most alive in their involvements?
-Who do staff members value most about themselves?
•
One of the most important aspects that the approach seems to
generate is more attention by the consultant and the client
organization to the strengths of the organization and its
members.
 Responsibility Charting
• It helps to clarify who is responsible for what on various
decisions and actions.
• Richard Beckhard and Ruben Harris - First step is to construct
a grid.
• Decisions and actions that has to be discussed are written in
the left-hand side of the grid and the actors who might play
come part decision making on those issues are identified
across the top of the grid.
• Then, a behavior is assigned to each of the actors opposite
each of the issues. There are four classes of behavior
(Responsibility, Approval required or the right to veto,
Support and Inform)

• Each decision or action is discussed and responsibility assigned

 Force Field Analysis
• Is the oldest intervention in the OD.
• Is useful for understanding a problematic
situation and planning corrective actions.
• Force field analysis is an influential development in
the field of social science.
• It provides a framework for looking at the factors
(forces) that influence a situation, originally
social situations. It looks at forces that are either
driving movement toward a goal (helping
forces) or blocking movement toward a goal
(hindering forces).
 Beckhard´s
•
confrontation meeting
Is a one-day meeting of the entire management of an
organization in which they take reading of their own
organizational health.
• In a series of activities, the management group generates
information about it´s major problems, analyses the
underlying causes, develops action plans to correct the
problems, and sets a schedule for completed remedial
work.
• Climate setting – ( 45 to 60 minutes) – goals for the meeting,
issues and problems
• Information sharing: (1 hr) – reporters from each group talks
about the groups findings.
• Priority setting and action plan: (1 hr and 15 min): Identify
and discuss issues relating to the prioritized, determine remedial
step and how information is passed.
• Immediate follow up by top team
• Progress review ( after 2 weeks)
 2 person conflict
management
• Blake and Mouton
• The positives – jot down what the working
relation should be like (no negatives)
• Positive attributes of the other person
• Share with each other
• Sharing of pain and resentments- behaviour
of the other that has caused pain, hurt anger
embarrassment (incidents)
• Share – no debate
• Contracting
• It would contribute to my effectiveness if you
did the following things more or better
• It would contribute to my effectiveness if you
did the following things less or stopped them
• It would contribute to my effectiveness if you
continued doing the following things
• Share – discuss
• Each person writes
• I am willing to what I need from u
• Share
• Action step
 Future search
conferences
• Marvin Weisbord has written extensively about
future search conferences and integrates ideas like
“when people plan present actions by working
backward from what is really desired, they develop
energy, enthusiasm, optimism, and high
commitment”.
• One version of Weisbord´s future search
conference model consist on 10 steps, the most
important are:
• The activities focuses on the past, focuses on
present factors, focuses on the future and focuses
on the next action steps.
 Gestalt OD
• It focuses more in the individual than the group.
• Stanley M. Herman, a management and OD consultant.
• Role of Kurt Lewin -OSD
• Gestalt therapy is based on the belief that persons
function as a whole, total organisms – Closure,
Proximity and Similarity.
• People get into trouble when they try to live according
to others demands.
• Goals: awareness, integration, maturation, authenticity,
self regulation and behavior change.
• Making boss subordinate relation stronger
• Enabling people to show both positive and negative
emotions
• And each person possesses positive and negative
characteristics that must be “owned up to” and permitted
expression.

• One must come and live in the “here and now” and must
stop blocking of awareness, authenticity and the like by
dysfunctional behaviours.

• The primary trust is to make the individual stronger.

• The Gestalt Orientation to team building should not be

used except by practitioners trained in this method.
 Structural interventions
• Work redesign
Core Dimensions Psychological States Outcomes

Skill Variety
Task Identity Meaningfulness High intrinsic
Task Signif. motivation
of Work
High job per-
ormance
High job satis-
Responsibility faction
Autonomy for outcomes Low absentee
ism & turnover

Knowledge of
Feedback
Results
 Quality Circles
• For problem solving and goal setting
• 7 -10 employees, come together
analyze and make proposals about
product quality and other problems.
• Recommendations are forwarded to
steering committee.
 Consultant client relations
• Entry (getting stuck) – Promises (un
ethical) – Trust – Diagnosis –
Intervention – feed back and
terminating the relationship.
 Competencies of an OD
Practitioner
• Intrapersonal skills
– Self-Awareness
• Interpersonal skills
– Ability to work with others and groups
– Authenticity (Block ch. 3)
• General consultation skills
– Ability to get skills and knowledge used
• Organization development theory
– Knowledge of change processes
 Professional Ethics/Ethical
Dilemmas
• Misrepresentation of skills
– Professional/technical ineptness
• Misuse of data
– To punish, layoffs
– Breaching confidentiality
• Collusion & Coercion
– Nonparticipation is acceptable
• Promising Unrealistic Outcomes
• Values and Goals Conflict
 Getting Stuck on Wants and
Offers
• When people mean • They express it by
– I don’t like it
saying
– I don’t understand it.
– Let’s get more data.
– I’ll get back to you.
– Let me talk it over
with my staff
– I don’t understand a
word you are saying. – Nothing

– Why don’t you think

it over and get back
– Do as I say, dammit.
to me?
– We want to talk to some others
about alternative approaches and
we’ll let you know.
 Coercive

Reward
The Bases
Legitimate
of Power
Expert

Referent
French and Raven, 1959
 What Creates
Dependency?

Importance Scarcity Number of

of the of the Viable
Resource Resource Substitutes
 OD, Power and Politics
• OD values consistent with positive
face of power
– Trust, openness, collaboration,
individual dignity, promoting individual
and organizational competence
• Emphasis on power equalization
– Increases power among organizational
members the whole organization has
more power
Open book
• The Way of the Sage is to act but not
to compete.”
- Lao Tsu

Relate this quote to OD interventions

and client and consultant relation
• To lead people, walk beside them ...
As for the best leaders, the people do not
notice their existence.
The next best, the people honour and praise.
The next, the people fear;
and the next, the people hate ...
When the best leader's work is done the
people say,
"We did it ourselves!"
- Lao-tsu

• OD principles, practices, prospects, conflicts

and challenges