Vehicle Dynamics

Outline
1. Vehicle dimensioning
2. Resistance in motion
3. Power for propulsion
4. Tractive effort & traction
5. Road performance curve
Vehicle dimensioning

l: wheel base in mm
v: vehicle centre of gravity

(COG)
Bo: body COG
Uf: front axle COG
Ur:rear axle COG

Axis of coordinates as per ISO 4130,

DIN 70000
 Centre of Gravity (COG)
v: vehicle CCOG
Bo: body COG
Uf: front axle COG
Ur:rear axle COG

V and Bo are more important ( their distance from both axles and height) for
following reasons
1. Braking and acceleration capacity
2. Climbing capability
3. Vibrational stability
4. Driving stability ( straight drive+cornering)
5. Mass moment of inertia

Lower is the height, better it is. But ground clearance has to be traded off.
 Extreme case of vehicle driving condition

What are the forces acting on the vehicle ?

 Resistance

Resistance is defined as the force impeding

vehicle motion

1. Aerodynamic resistance
2. Rolling resistance
3. Inertia force
4. Gravitational force (Grade resistance)
 Fa aerodynamic resistance in lb (N)

Frlf Frlr rolling resistance of the front/rear tires in lb (N)

F f Fr Available tractive effort of the front/rear tires in lb (N)

W Total vehicle weight in lb (N)

θ Angle of the grade in degrees

m Vehicle mass in slugs (kg)

a Acceleration in ft/s2 (m/s2)

( neglecting the effect of mass due to

rotational effect)
Vector sum of total forces
 Aerodynamic Resistance Ra
It is sum total of :

1. Form Drag (57%)

2. Lift Drag ( 8%)
3. Surface Drag (10%)
4. Interference Drag (15%)
5. Cooling & Ventilation Drag (10%)

With advanced body design , like smoothening bottom

surface, redesigning the front bumper can minimise the lift.
This can reduce to be negligible compared to other drags.
So , we will neglect for all our study purpose.
 If RN< 2000, then
streamline flow. Otherwise
turbulent flow.

v  velocity of body relative to fluid

A orthographic projected area
perpendicular to the flow direction

For streamline flow (RN <1)

FD=-bV
b property of fluid+dimension of
object
 3
6
1
7
9
5
8
2
4
 Aerodynamic Resistance Ra

Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from
radiators and air vents (3%)

ρ
Ra = CD Af V 2

2
ρ air density in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3)
CD Coefficient of drag

Af Front area of the vehicle in ft2 (m2)

V Speed of the vehicle in ft/m (m/s)

ρ
PR a = C D A f V 3
2
Typical values of air density under specific atmospheric conditions

Ranges of Cd for typical road vehicles

 Aerodynamic Resistance Ra
Drag Coefficient
• Recent vehicles have lower coefficient
• Large personal vehicles have higher coefficient
• Even minor factors like opening window will affect coefficient
How to reduce Aerodynamic resistance ?

Aerodynamic design

Drag
lift

Wing
Undertray
Spoiler
 Aerodynamic Resistance
Ra

Frontal area of vehicle

Orthographic projection area

most modern road going vehicles.
• Smooth vehicle shape, rounded corners
• High rake angle for the windscreen
• Tapered rear end
• Minimized body seams
• Optimized rear view mirrors
• Substitution of rear view mirrors with cameras
• Smooth underbody
 Aerodynamic Resistance Ra
Frontal area of some of the vehicles
Drag area ( Cd xYear/ Automobile
Ft2)
4.0 1996 GM EV1
5.1 1999 Honda Insight
5.4 1989 Opel Calibra
5.5 1980 Ferrari 308 GTB
5.6 1993 Mazda RX-7
5.6 1993 McLaren F1
5.6 1991 Opel Calibra
5.6 1990 Bugatti EB110
5.7 1990 Honda CRX
Rolling resistance
 Rolling Resistance
1. Caused by the deformation of wheel or the road
surface or both due to load of the vehicle
2. < sliding resistance
3. In an automobile with rubber tyre, it happens
mainly due to hysteresis loss ( deformation/ recovery
of tyre). Thus it is much higher than that of a steel
wheel on train.
Rolling resistance leads to heat and sound energy.
 Tyres

Aspect ratio=W/H
H=0.5*(ODT-d)

Load index
Max speed
175/70 R 14 or 185/60 R 15 82 H

Rim dia in inches

Aspect ratio in %
Width (W in mm) Radial
 Rolling Resistance
Rolling resistance =f( hardness, r, v, W, T,
relative micro sliding, matl, temp)

1. If hardness is more, it reduces. Rolling resistance on a concrete

road is less than that in sand.

2. Higher the radius of the wheel , lower is the rolling resistance.

3. It has got linear relationship with velocity ( but a low gradient)

as frequent deformation / recovery increases temperature and thus
rolling resistance.
4. Higher load increases rolling resistance due to same reason as 3.

5. As temperature increases, rolling resistance increases.

6. On a smooth surface ( e.g on wet road ), it is lower

….contd
 Rolling Resistance
Rolling resistance =f( hardness, r, v, T, relative
micro sliding, matl, temp)

7. Softer the material, more is the hysteresis loss and thus more is
the rolling resistance. Thus to reduce it many times silane ( silica)
replaces the carbon black. Silane is however costlier than the
carbon black.

8. Higher inflation pressure reduces the contact area thus reduces

rolling resistance. This helps to reduce the hysteresis loss. But
excess inflation pressure results in skip and hop of the vehicle
which result into loss of traction and problem in braking.

9. Radial tyres reduce rolling resistance ( by >25%) than bias ply

tyres due to stiffness of the inserted steel wires. This helps in
reduction of the hysteresis loss.
 Rolling Resistance

Rolling resistance =f( hardness, r, v, T, relative

micro sliding, matl, temp)
10.Higher aspect ratio ( W/H) reduces the rolling resistance.

11. Lower tread thickness reduces rolling resistance.

 Rolling Resistance Rrl

Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (∼ 90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression (∼ 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel (∼ 6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance

Rrl = f rlW cos θ g ≈ f rlW

( for small gradient)

frl = 0 .01(1 + V ) Metric

PR rl = f rlWV 44 .73
V is veh speed (m/s)
 Crr Description
0.0002 to 0.0010 Railroad steel wheel on steel rail

0.0025 Special racing tires

0.005 Tram rails standard dirty with straights and curves

0.006 to 0.01 Low-resistance car tires on smooth road; truck

tires on smooth road
0.010 to 0.015 Ordinary car tires on concrete
0.030 to 0.035 Ordinary car tires on tar or asphalt
0.055 to 0.065 Ordinary car tires on grass, mud, and sand
0.3 Ordinary car tires on sand
 Rolling resistance

As speed increases , more heat is generated making the

material softer and thus increase in rolling resistance
 Grade Resistance
Rg
-Gravitational force acting on the vehicle

Rg = W sin θ g θg
For small angles, sin θ g ≈ tan θ g
Rg = W tan θ g Rg

tan θ g = G
θg W
Rg = WG
G: grade in m/m or in %
 Total resistance

Ft=Fa+Fr+Fg+ma Ft=a+bV+CV2

Total resistance

Air resistance
Resistance (N)

Rolling resistance

Gradient resistance

Velocity ( KMPH)
For diff gradient find out ?
Propulsion Power Calculation
(Tractive Effort)
Maximum Tractive Effort
When accelerating upward,
F the inertia force is
w

hw downward

T
R
rf
m
rlf
v a
m
v gc o m
W sα v gs i
f W nα
F hg
tf α
la T
rr
R
rlr
rd
lb W
L r F
tr

α
Wf - weight distribution to the front wheel
Wr - weight distribution to the rear wheel
 Maximum Tractive Force
For front wheel drive
It is the multiplied value of coefficient of friction and the
normal transferred weight

Ftmax =µ Wf
So,
Ftmax =µ [ max ]
Replace Fr with frl Mvg
 Maximum Tractive Force

Ftmax = µMvg{Lb+fr(hg-rd)}/{(1+µhg/L)L}
Neglecting wheel radius compared to the centre of gravity

Ftmax = µW(Lb+frhg)/{(1+µhg/L)L}

For rear wheel drive

Ftmax = µW(Lb- frhg)/{(1-µhg/L)L}
Engine generated Tractive effort
 Engine generated Tractive effort reaching the wheels

Engine speed vs wheel speed

Gear box
Gear reduction ratio +
ε0
Final txn
Gear reduction
Engine speed (Transmission & Wheel speed
Differential)

Lost 5%-25% of total efforts

η d = 1 − lost
ηd Mechanical efficiency of the driveline
 Urban driving

Highway driving
Winter 2006
CEE 320
 Engine Generated Tractive Effort
2πM e ne
IC engine power is: p e =
1000
Me Engine torque (N-m)

ne Engine speed in crankshaft revolution per second

IC engine
pe Power in kilowatt (KW)

What about if torque is

specified in lb-ft
 Engine Generated Tractive Effort

Electric motror driven vehicle

Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

M eε 0η d
Fe =
r

Fe= Engine generated tractive effort reaching wheels

(N)
Me = Engine torque (N-m)
ε0 = Gear reduction ratio
ηd= Driveline efficiency (0.75-0.95)
r= Wheel radius (m)
Vehicle Speed vs. Engine Speed

2πrne (1 − i )
V=
ε0
V= velocity (m/s)
r= wheel radius (m)
ne= crankshaft rps
i= driveline slippage (2-5%)
ε0= gear reduction ratio

For 5 geared vehicle

 AVAILABLE TRACTIVE EFFORT

• The minimum of:

– Force generated by the engine, Fe
– Maximum value that is a function of the vehicle’s
weight distribution and road-tire interaction, Fmax

Available tractive effort = min ( Fe , Fmax )

ctors affecting are:-

Co-eficient of friction
Gear ratio of driving forces
Maximum power available to the gear system
Safe working torque of the gear system

μm (Max tractive effort)

P/v = F ( inverse relationship)

Continuous tractive effort ( force)

 Tractive Effort
ve Force (Effort) : Pulling Force exerted by the vehicle
1.0- Maximum Tractive Force
2.0- Engine Generated Tractive Force (P/v)
(Continuous)

1.0-Maximum Tractive Effort :

Maximum force/power beyond which the wheel spins & is a

function of weight distribution and road-tyre interaction

The maximum tractive effort is given by: µWnormal

Tractive Effort Relationships

F max
1 gear
st

2nd gear
Total resistance
3rd gear

4th gear

w/o gear reduction

 Mr=M*γ m

γ m
= 0.04 + 0.0025ε 2
0

Overall drive ratio

( final drive+ gear box)
 Rollover dynamics

m=mass of veh
v= velocity
r=radius of curve
F1,F2= Horizontal forces on tyres
R1,R2=vertical reaction

F1+F2=mv2/r
F1+F2=(R2-R1)*a/h

v= a. r. g/h

So mass plays no role in turning

Vehicle turning left

Skidding case Slippage is under 2 conditions

Accelerate
F1+F2<u * (R1+R2) (wheelspin)
-Longitudinal slip
Deriving - Cornering slip Braking
Vskid= u . g . r (Lockup)
a/h>u Best at 5 deg, worst at 90 deg

Home assignment on derivation !

 Tyre co-efficient of Friction
Effect of various parameters on friction

Parameters Condition u

Speed Increase Reduces

Camber angle Increase Reduces

Tyre pressure Increase Reduces

Rain Reduces

Road surface Bituminous Highest

Asphalt Low

Cement Lowest

Temperature Low Higher

High Higher

Optimum Lowest
 Traction & Chassis design

on : The output of a tyre from it’s handling point of view is it’s traction
In other words , how well it sticks to the ground
It determines how fast a car can accelerate , brake and corner

Input for a tyre : Load, Output is Tractionj

So on a lighter car, one can negotiate faster

 Camber & Traction Cirecle of Traction

Traction reduces on positive

camber due to lower patch area
At acceleration, available traction
for cornering is reduced