Solar Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic systems are solar energy systems that
produce electricity directly from sunlight.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems produce clean, reliable
energy without consuming fossil fuels and can be
used in a wide variety of applications.

Photo means light. Voltaic means electricity. Photovoltaic means

getting electricity from light.
 Photovoltaic System

Typical output of a module (~30 cells) is ≈ 15 V, with 1.5 A current

SOLAR CELL: A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer
consisting of an ultra-thin layer of phosphorus-doped (N-type) silicon
on top of a thicker layer of boron-doped (P-type) silicon. An electrical
field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two
materials are in contact, called the P-N junction. When sunlight strikes
the surface of a PV cell, this electrical field provides momentum and
direction to light-stimulated electrons, resulting in a flow of current
when the solar cell is connected to an electrical load

Regardless of size, a typical silicon PV cell produces about

0.5 – 0.6 volt DC under open-circuit, no-load conditions. The
current (and power) output of a PV cell depends on its
efficiency and size (surface area), and is proportional to the
intensity of sunlight striking the surface of the cell.
Also called a solar panel or photovoltaic (PV) module, an integrated assembly
of interconnected solar cells designed to deliver a selected level of working
voltage and current at its output terminals, and suited for incorporation in a
solar power system. In addition to the cells, a typical solar module includes the
following components:
A transparent top surface, usually glass
An encapsulate – usually thin sheets of ethyl vinyl acetate that hold together the
top surface, solar cells, and rear surface
A rear layer – a thin polymer sheet, typically Tedlar, that prevents the ingress of
water and gases
A frame around the outer edge, typically aluminum
Solar modules are normally mounted on top of a roof as part of a
roof-mounted solar power system, or a holding rack of some sort, within a
frame structure. A solar module is the smallest building block of the power
generating part of a solar array.
SOLAR ARRAY
The solar array consists of 14 + 4 parallel connected solar panels with the
sections of 196 x 196 mm in size made on the basis of silicon solar cells. Six
single-side panels are mounted on the facets of the subsatellite at the
distance of 10 mm from metallic surface, 12 panels are to be deployed in
space. After deploying their axes have 100 deg angle with respect to
subsatellite axis directed toward Sun. Four solar panels are reserved and
switched to the system of subsatellite energy supply together with their
DC/DC converter-inverter MPC after degradation of the panels initially
switched on.
The current of the panel being orthogonal to the Sun direction is about 0.2 A
at the operation voltage of 14 Volt. The maximum total power of the solar
array at the nominal solar orientation is 36 W.
Photovoltaic Cell. Thin squares, discs, or films of semiconductor material
that generate voltage and current when exposed to sunlight.

• Module. A configuration of PV cells laminated between a clear superstrate

(glazing) and an encapsulating substrate.

• Panel. One or more modules (often used interchangeably with “module”).

• Array. One or more panels wired together at a specific voltage.

• Charge Controller. Equipment that regulates battery voltage.

• Battery Storage. A medium that stores direct current (DC) electrical energy.

• Inverter. An electrical device that changes direct current to alternating

current AC).

• DC Loads. Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by direct current.

• AC Loads. Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by alternating

current.
Inside a PV Cell
Solar Photovoltaic System uses solar cells to convert light
into electricity. A PV system consists of PV modules and balance
of systems (BOS). Balance of systems includes module support
structure, storage, wiring, power electronics, etc.
DC (direct current) electricity is generated when solar radiation
strikes the PV module. Power can be used in any DC load directly
during this generation. But the generation exists during daytime.
So, some storage device is needed to run the system at night or in
low sunshine hour. Again this power cannot be used to run any
AC (alternate current) load. Inverter has to be used to convert DC
into AC.

Solar PV systems are categories into

Stand-alone PV systems (also called off-grid systems)
Grid connected PV systems (also called on-grid systems)
Hybrid systems
Stand-alone PV systems
Stand-alone systems are not connected with utility power lines and these are self
sufficient systems. These systems could either be used to charge the batteries
that serve as an energy storage device or could work directly using the solar
energy available in the daytimes. These systems consist of the following:
Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules
produce direct current (DC) electrical power.
Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
Inverter to convert electricity produced by the system from DC to AC power.

The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads with battery bank. DC
loads can also be connected directly to the battery bank. It is also possible to
power the AC load without battery, but in that case it would be confined only to
daytime when solar radiation is sufficient to generate required electricity.
Grid connected PV systems
A grid connected photovoltaic system will be interacted with utility grid. The
main advantage of this system is that power can be drawn from the utility grid
and when power is not available from grid, PV system can supplement that
power. These grid connected systems are designed with battery or without
battery storage. These systems consist of the following:
Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules
produce direct current (DC) electrical power.
Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC electricity to the
grid electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.

The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads. This system is

connected to utility power supply and having battery storage for backup.
Hybrid systems
System with more than one source of power is called Hybrid system. It is often
desirable to design a system with additional source of power. The most
common type of hybrid system contains a gas or diesel powered engine
generator. Another hybrid approach is a PV/Wind system. Adding a wind turbine
to a PV system provides complementary power generation. These systems
consist of the following:
Solar panels mounted on the roof or in open spaces. Photovoltaic modules
produce direct current (DC) electrical power.
Batteries to store DC energy generated by the solar panels.
Charge controller to prevent overcharging the battery.
Specially designed inverter to transform the PV generated DC electricity to the
grid electricity (which is of AC) at the grid voltage.

The following diagram shows PV system powering AC loads. This system is

connected to utility power supply & diesel generator and having battery storage
for backup.
 PV Technology Classification
Silicon Crystalline Technology Thin Film Technology

Mono Crystalline PV Cells Amorphous Silicon

PV Cells

Multi Crystalline PV Cells Poly Crystalline PV

Cells
( Non-Silicon based)
 Silicon Crystalline Technology
 currently makes up 86% of PV market
 Very stable with module efficiencies 10-16%

Mono crystalline PV Cells Multi Crystalline PV Cells

•Made using saw-cut from single •Caste from ingot of melted
cylindrical crystal of Si and recrystallised silicon
•Operating efficiency up to 15% •Cell efficiency ~12%
•Accounts for 90% of
crystalline Si market
 Amorphous Silicon PV Cells
 The most advanced of thin film technologies
 Operating efficiency ~6%
 Makes up about 13% of PV market

PROS
• Mature manufacturing
technologies available

CONS
• Initial 20-40% loss in
efficiency
 Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non – Silicon Based Technology

Copper Indium Diselinide

CIS with band gap 1eV, high
absorption coefficient 105cm-1
 High efficiency levels

PROS
• 18% laboratory efficiency
• >11% module efficiency

CONS
• Immature manufacturing

process
• Slow vacuum process
 Poly Crystalline PV Cells
Non – Silicon Based Technology

Cadmium Telluride ( CdTe)

 Unlike most other II/IV material
CdTe exhibits direct band gap of
1.4eV and high absorption
coefficient

PROS
• 16% laboratory efficiency
• 6-9% module efficiency
CONS
• Immature manufacturing process
4 TYPES OF STORAGE BATTERY USED IN SOLAR POWER
Golf Cart Batteries
Golf-cart batteries, also used in RVs and boats, are suited for small, privately
owned solar systems. These batteries are inexpensive, which makes them great
for the average homeowner. However, they lack the ability to provide continuous
service for a long period of time. This is the battery to use if you are just starting
out with solar power and want to experiment a little or if your solar energy needs
are low. They shouldn't be confused with regular car batteries.
Gel
Gel solar batteries are solar batteries that are industrial grade and can handle
more discharge cycles. According to windsun.com, they have their acid in a gel-
like form and have to be charged more slowly than other battery types. They are
safe for use indoors because they don't have any vents that can release gas. This
is desirable because gas from batteries may build up in an enclosed space and
pose an explosion hazard.
Lead Acid
Like gel batteries, lead acid solar batteries are of industrial quality. However,
unlike gel batteries, lead acid batteries have caps through which the user can
add water. This allows the user to "recharge" the electrolyte balance in the
battery, leading to better performance.
AGM
Absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries AGM batteries get their name from the mat
of woven glass (boron silicate) that holds the battery electrolyte. these batteries
won't leak and have the advantages of slower discharge and no gas release .
 Applications @ PV
• Water Pumping: PV powered pumping systems are excellent
,simple ,reliable – life 20 yrs
• Commercial Lighting: PV powered lighting systems are reliable
and low cost alternative. Security, billboard sign, area, and outdoor
lighting are all viable applications for PV
• Consumer electronics: Solar powered watches, calculators, and
cameras are all everyday applications for PV technologies.
• Telecommunications
• Residential Power: A residence located more than a mile from the
electric grid can install a PV system more inexpensively than
extending the electric grid
(Over 500,000 homes worldwide use PV power as their only source
of electricity)
THANK Q
Solar Domestic Hot Water
Solar Domestic Hot Water
PV Wiring
 Series Connections

• Loads/sources wired in
series

– VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE

– CURRENT IS EQUAL
 Parallel Connections
• Loads/sources wired in parallel:

– VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT

– CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
 Wire Components
• Conductor material = copper (most common)
• Insulation material = thermoplastic (most
common)

• Wire exposed to sunlight must be classed as

sunlight resistant
Solar Site & Mounting
 Part 6: Learning Objectives
• Understand azimuth and altitude
• Describe proper orientation and tilt angle
for solar collection
• Describe the concept of “solar window”
• Evaluate structural considerations
• Pros and cons of different mounting
techniques
Altitude and Azimuth
Sun Chart for 40 degrees N
Latitude
 Solar Pathfinder
• An essential tool in finding a good site for
solar energy is the Solar Pathfinder
• Provides daily, monthly, and yearly solar
hours estimates
 Site Selection – Tilt Angle

Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays

Year round tilt = latitude

Winter + 15 lat.
Summer – 15 lat.
 Solar Access
• Optimum Solar Window 9 am – 3 pm

• Array should have NO SHADING in this

window (or longer if possible)
 General Considerations
• Weather characteristics
– Wind intensity
– Estimated snowfall
• Site characteristics
– Corrosive salt water
– Animal interference
• Human factors
– Vandalism
– Theft protection
– Aesthetics
 General Considerations
Continued
• Loads and time of use
• Distance from power conditioning
equipment
• Accessibility for maintenance
• Zoning codes
 Basic Mounting Options
• Fixed
– Roof, ground, pole
• Integrated
• Tracking
– Pole (active & passive)
 Incandescent Lamps
• Advantages
– Most common
– Least expensive
– Pleasing light
• Disadvantages
– Low efficiency
– Short life ~ 750 hours

Electricity is conducted through a filament which resists

the flow of electricity, heats up, and glows
Efficiency increases as lamp wattage increases

FROM THE POWER PLANT TO YOUR HOME

INCANDESCENT BULBS ARE LESS THAN 2%
EFFICIENT
 Fluorescent Bulbs
• Less wattage, same amount of lumens
• Longer life (~10,000 hours)
• May have difficulty starting in cold
environments
• Not good for lights that are repeatedly
turned on and off
• Contain a small amount of mercury
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) Lights

• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Extremely efficient – Expensive (although
– Long life (100,000 prices are decreasing
hours) steadily)
– Rugged – A relatively new
– No radio frequency technology
interference
Batteries in Series and Parallel
• Series connections
– Builds voltage
• Parallel connections
– Builds amp-hour capacity
 Functions of a Battery
 Storage for the night
 Storage during cloudy weather
 Portable power
 Surge for starting motors

**Due to the expense and inherit inefficiencies of batteries it is

recommended that they only be used when absolutely necessary (i.e.
in remote locations or as battery backup for grid-tied applications if
power failures are common/lengthy)
 Batteries: The Details
Types:

 Primary (single use)

 Secondary (recharged)
 Shallow Cycle (20% DOD)
 Deep Cycle (50-80% DOD)

Charging/Discharging:
 Unless lead-acid batteries are charged up to 100%, they will loose
capacity over time
 Batteries should be equalized on a regular basis
 Battery Capacity

Capacity:
 Amps x Hours = Amp-hours (Ah)
100 amps for 1 hour
100 Amp-hours = 1 amp for 100 hours
20 amps for 5 hours

 Capacity changes with Discharge Rate

 The higher the discharge rate the lower the capacity and vice versa
 The higher the temperature the higher the percent of rated capacity
Rate of Charge or Discharge
Rate = C/T

C = Battery’s rated capacity (Amp-hours)

T = The cycle time period (hours)

Maximum recommend charge/discharge rate =

C/3 to C/5
 Grid-Tied System
(With Batteries)

• Complexity
– High: Due to the
addition of batteries
• Grid Interaction
– Grid still
supplements power
– When grid goes
down batteries
supply power to
loads (aka battery
backup)
Controllers & Inverters
 Grid-Tied System

• Advantages
– Low: Easy to
install (less
components)
– Grid can supply
power

• Disadvantages
– No power when
grid goes down
 Additional Controller Features
• Voltage Stepdown Controller: compensates for
differing voltages between array and batteries (ex.
48V array charging 12V battery)
– By using a higher voltage array, smaller wire can
be used from the array to the batteries
 Other Controller Considerations
• When specifying a controller you must consider:
– DC input and output voltage
– Input and output current
– Any optional features you need
• Temperature Compensation: adjusts the charging of
batteries according to ambient temperature
 Inverter Basics

Function:
• An electronic device used to convert direct current (DC) electricity into alternating current (AC)
electricity

• Controller redundancy: On a stand-alone system it might be desirable to have more then one controller per array in the
event of a failure
Drawbacks:
 Efficiency penalty
 Complexity (read: a component which can fail)
 Cost!!
 Specifying an Inverter
• What type of system are you designing?
– Stand-alone
– Stand-alone with back-up source (generator)
– Grid-Tied (without batteries)
– Grid-Tied (with battery back-up)
• Specifics:
– AC Output (watts)
– Input voltage (based on modules and wiring)
– Output voltage (120V/240V residential)
– Input current (based on modules and wiring)
– Surge Capacity
– Efficiency
– Weather protection
– Metering/programming
Solar electricity prices are today, around 30 cents/kWh, but still 2-5 times
average Residential electricity tariffs