Chapter 17 pp

Reaction Kinetics
 17.1 The Reaction Process
● Explain the concept of reaction mechanism.
● Use collision theory to interpret reactions.
● Define activated complex.
● Relate activation energy to heat of reaction.
 Reaction Mechanisms
● The series of steps that actually occur
in a chemical reaction.
● A balanced equation does not tell us
how the reactants become products.
● Kinetics can tell us something about the
mechanism.
A Molecular Representation of the Elementary Steps in the

Reaction of NO2 and CO

Overall: NO2 + CO → NO + CO2

Step 1: NO2 + NO2 → NO3 + NO (k1)
Step 2: NO3 + CO → NO2 + CO2 (k2)
NO3 is an intermediate
 Reaction Mechanisms
● 2NO2 + F2 2NO2F
● Rate = k[NO2][F2]
● The proposed mechanism is:
● NO2 + F2 NO2F + F (slow)
● F + NO2 NO2F (fast)
● F is called an intermediate. It is
formed then consumed in the reaction
 Reaction Mechanisms
● Each of the two reactions is called an
elementary step.
● The rate for each reaction can be
written from its molecularity.
● Molecularity is the number of pieces
that must come together (collide) to
produce the reaction indicated by that
step.
 Finding the Reaction Mechanism
● Must satisfy two requirements:
● 1. Sum of the elementary steps does
give the overall balanced equation for
the reaction
● 2. The proposed mechanism must agree
with the experimentally derived rate law.
● N2 + 3H2 2NH3 As the reaction
progresses the concentration H2 goes down

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t [H2]
i
o
n

Time
 ● As N2 + 3H2 2NH3 progresses the
concentration N2 goes down 1/3 as fast
C
o
n
c
e
n [N2]
t
r
a
t [H2]
i
o
n

Time
 ● As N2 + 3H2 2NH3 progresses the
concentration NH3 goes up.
C
o
n
c
e
n [N2]
t
r
a
t [H2]
i
o
n [NH3]

0 Time
 Definition of Rate.

2NO2 → 2NO + O2

1
 Collision Theory
● In order to react molecules and atoms
must touch each other.
● They must hit each other hard enough to
react.
● Anything that increases collision force will
make the reaction faster.
● They must also hit with the correct
orientation or the collision won’t be
“successful” & won’t cause a reaction.
● LD 4: 17.35 Collisions & Rxn mechanisms

2
 Tr96 Fig. 17-9 p. 533 Possible Collision Patterns

3
 Several Possible Orientations for a Collision
Between Two BrNO Molecules. (a) & (b) can lead to
a collision, (c) cannot.

14
 O O
O O N N
N N
Br Br Br Br

Br N O
O N Br Br N O
Br O N

Br N O O N Br No
Reaction
15
 Activation Energy
● Two things must happen for a reaction
to occur.
● Bonds must break within the reactants
(requires energy).
● Bonds must form to make products
(gives off energy).
● This process makes a temporary
compound that last while new bonds
are breaking and forming.
● This is an activated complex.
16
 Activation Energy
● Once an exothermic reaction gets
started, the energy from bonds forming
to make products is enough to sustain
the reaction.
● But, initially need energy to start the
exothermic reaction.
● Activation Energy - the minimum energy
needed to transform the reactants into
an activated complex.

17
 Energy

Reactants

Products
Reaction coordinate
8
 Activation Energy -
Minimum energy to
make the reaction
happen
Energy

Reactants

Products
Reaction coordinate
9
 Activated
Complex or
Transition State
Energy

Reactants

Products
Reaction coordinate
0
 Energy

Reactants
Overall energy
change
Products
Reaction coordinate
1
 Tr95A Ae Differences in Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions

•How much bigger is Ea(reverse) than Ea(forward)? . . .

•Ea(reverse) = Ea(forward) + ∆Hrxn
•What’s value of ∆H reverse rxn ?

2 •∆H reverserxn = (+) 393 kJ

 Tr95A Ae Differences in Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions

•What are the products of the reverse reaction? . . .

•2K(s) + 2H2O(l)

3
 Detour for STAR Test review
● The following slides will review the
important things you need to know for
the STAR test.
● You can also look at the chapters on
equilibrium, nuclear chemistry, and
organic chemistry.

4
 Le Châtelier’s Principle
● If something is changed in a system at
equilibrium, the system will respond to
relieve the stress.
● Three types of stress are applied:

– Pressure
– Concentration
– Temperature
 Changes in Pressure
● As the pressure increases the reaction
will shift in the direction of the least
gases.
● At high pressure

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)

● At low pressure
2H2(g) + O2(g) ← 2 H2O(g)
 Changing Concentration
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
● If you add reactants (i.e., increase their
concentration) the forward reaction will
speed up.
● More product will form.
● Equilibrium “Shifts to the right”
● Reactants → products
 Changing Concentration
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
● If you remove reactants (or decrease
their concentration).
● The reverse reaction will speed up.
● More reactant will form.
● Equilibrium “Shifts to the left”.
● Reactants ← products
● Used to control how much yield you get
from a chemical reaction.
 Changing Concentration
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
● If you add products (i.e., increase their
concentration).
● The reverse reaction will speed up.
● More reactant will form.
● Equilibrium “Shifts to the left”
● Reactants ← products
 Changing Concentration
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
● If you remove products (or decrease
their concentration).
● The forward reaction will speed up.
● More product will form.
● Equilibrium “Shifts to the right”
● Reactants → products
 Changing Temperature
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + 92 kJ
● Reactions either require or release heat.
● Exothermic go faster at lower
temperatures.
● Endothermic reactions go faster at higher
temperature.
● All reversible reactions will be
endothermic one way and exothermic the
reverse way.
● LD 3: 18.6 Reversible cobalt complex
 Exothermic Review
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + 92 kJ
● H < 0
● Releases heat
● Think of heat as a product in exo rxns
● Raising temperature pushes toward
reactants.
● Shifts to left.
 Endothermic Review
2H2O(g) + 484 kJ 2H2(g) + O2(g)
● H > 0
● Requires heat
● Think of heat as a reactant
● Raising temperature push toward
products.
● Shifts to right.
 Gas Phase Equilibrium
catalyst N2(g) + 3
H2(g) 2 NH3(g) + heat high pressure and temperature

● Endothermic or exothermic? . . .
● Exothermic.
● Adding heat shifts which way?
● Left
● Cooling the system shifts which way?
● Right
 Le Chatelier Review pp

● 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)

∆H = 2820 kJ
● Some CO2(g) is added and causes . . .

● Shift to right so get more C6H12O6(s) .

● Temperature is raised . . .
● Shift to right, more C6H12O6(s) forms.

● Volume is decreased
● There are equal moles of gaseous
reactants and products, so no change.
 Le Chatelier Review pp

● 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) ∆H =

2820 kJ
● Some O2(g) is removed . . .
● Shift to right, more C6H12O6(s) forms.
● Some C6H12O6(s) is removed . . .
● No change (glucose is a solid so is not in the
equilibrium expression). No more C6H12O6(s) .
● A catalyst is added . . .
● No effect on equilibrium, only allows it be attained
more quickly. No more C6H12O6(s) .
 Le Chatelier Review pp

● 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) ∆H =

2820 kJ
● Some H2O is removed . . .
● No change, water is a liquid. No additional
C6H12O6(s) forms.
 Radiation
• Radiation comes from the nucleus of an atom.
• Unstable nucleus emits a particle or energy

α alpha
β beta

γ gamma

38
39
A.
A. Types
Types of
of Radiation
Radiation pp
pp

 Alpha particle (α )4 H e
2
 helium nucleus 2+ paper

 Beta particle (β -)0

 electron -1 e 1-
lead
 Positron (β +)
0
+1 e
 positron 1+
 Gamma (γ ) concrete
 high-energy photon 0
 Radiation Protection
• Shielding
alpha – paper, clothing
beta – lab coat, gloves
gamma- lead, thick concrete
• Limit time exposed
• Keep distance from source

40
 Radiation Protection

41
 42
B.
B. Nuclear
Nuclear Decay
Decay pp
pp

 Alpha Emission
238
92 U→ 234
90Th + He 4
2

parent daughter alpha

nuclide nuclide particle
Atomic & Mass Numbers must balance!!
43
B.
B. Nuclear
Nuclear Decay
Decay pp
pp

 Beta Emission
131
53 I→ 131
54 Xe + e 0
-1

electron
 Positron Emission
38
19 K→ 38
18 Ar + 0
+1 e
positron
44
B.
B. Nuclear
Nuclear Decay
Decay pp
pp

 Electron Capture
106
47 Ag + e →
0
-1
106
46 Pd
Gamma Emission
electron
 Usually follows other types of decay.

Transmutation
 One element becomes another.

45
 Gamma radiation pp

No change in atomic or mass number

11
B 11
B + 0
γ
5 5 0

boron atom in a
high-energy state

46
47
 Learning Check NR1 pp

Write the nuclear equation for the beta

emitter Cobalt-60. . .

48
 Solution NR1 pp

Write the nuclear equation for the

Beta emitter Cobalt-60.

60
Co 60
Ni + 0
e
27 28 -1

49
 Producing Radioactive
Isotopes
Bombardment of atoms produces
radioisotopes
= 60 = 60
59
Co + 1n Mn +
56
He
4

27 0 25 2

= 27 = 27
cobalt neutron manganese alpha
atom radioisotope particle

50
 Learning Check NR2

What radioactive isotope is produced in

the following bombardment of boron?

10
B + 4He ? + 1
n
5 2 0

51
 Solution NR2

What radioactive isotope is produced in

the following bombardment of boron?

10
B + 4He 13
N+ 1
n
5 2 7 0

nitrogen
radioisotope
52
 Addition Polymers pp

● Polymers are giant molecules, not

small like the ones studied earlier
in this chapter
● Examples are plastics
● Polymer - large molecule formed by
the covalent bonding of smaller
molecules called monomers
53
 Addition Polymers

54
 17.2 Reaction Rate
● Define chemical kinetics & explain the
2 conditions necessary for chemical
reactions to occur.
● Discuss the 5 factors influencing rate.
● Define catalyst and discuss 2 types.
● Explain & write rate laws for chemical
reactions.

5
 Kinetics
● The study of reaction rates.
● Spontaneous reactions are reactions
that will happen - but we can’t tell how
fast.
● Diamond will spontaneously turn to
graphite – eventually.
● Reaction mechanism - the steps by
which a reaction takes place.

6
 Things that Affect Rate
#1 Nature of Reactants
● Different substances have different
reactivities.
● Hydrogen reacts vigorously with chlorine,
but only feebly with nitrogen.
● The rate depends on the particular
reactants and bonds involved.

7
 Things that Affect Rate
#2 Surface Area
● Particle size determines surface area.
● Molecules can only collide at the surface.
● Smaller particles have bigger surface area.
● So, smaller particles have faster reaction.
● Smallest possible is molecules or ions.
● Dissolving speeds up reactions since the
particle size gets smaller.
● Getting two solids to react with each other is
slow (big particle size).
● LD 4:17.42 Lycopodium
8
 Things that Affect Rate
#3 Temperature
● Higher temperature - faster particles.
● Greater kinetic energy.
● More and stronger collisions.
● So, get faster Reactions.
● Decreasing temperature has opposite effect.
● Rule of thumb: Beginning at room
temperature (25 ºC), rate doubles with each
10 ºC rise in temperature.
● Rules of thumb always have exceptions.
● LD 4: 17.45 Bleaching dye hot/cold water.
9
 Things that Affect Rate
#4 Concentration
● More concentrated means the
molecules are closer together.
● So, they collide more often.
● Get a faster reaction.
● LD 4:46 Mg + HCl, different
concentrations.

0
 Tr98 Fig. 17-13 p. 540 Concentration Affects Rate

•How many collisions can occur between 6 “A”

particles & 4 “B” particles? . . .
•24 collisions.
1
 Things that Affect Rate
#5 Catalysts
● Substances that speed up a reaction without
being used up (e.g., enzyme).
● LD 4: 17.50 H2O2 catalytic decomposition.

● Speeds up reaction by giving the reaction a new

path.
● New path has a lower activation energy.
● Since more molecules have this energy the
reaction goes faster.
● Inhibitor - a substance that blocks a catalyst.

2
 Energy

Reactants

Products
Reaction coordinate
3
 Catalysts
● Speed up a reaction without being used
up in the reaction.
● Enzymes are biological catalysts.
● Homogenous Catalysts are in the same
phase as the reactants.
● Heterogeneous Catalysts are in a
different phase as the reactants.

4
 Energy Plots
for a Catalyzed
and an
Uncatalyzed
Pathway for a
Given
Reaction.

∆E is the same
in both cases!

5
 Tr97A Fig. 17-15 p. 541 Comparing Pathways
for Decomposing H2O2 by Various Catalysts

•Why is H2O2 stored in brown bottles to protect it from

UV light?
•UV light has enough energy to catalyze the reaction.
6
 Tr97A Fig. 17-15 p. 541 Comparing Pathways
for Decomposing H2O2 by Various Catalysts

•How many activated complexes are created with the

heterogenous catalyst, MnO2? . . .
•There are 3 activated complexes.
7
 Catalysts
H H
● Hydrogen bonds to H H
surface of metal.
● Break H-H bonds H H

H H
Pt
surface
8
 Catalysts
H H

H C C H
H H

H H
Pt
surface
9
 Catalysts
● Thedouble bond breaks and bonds to the
catalyst.

H H
H H
H C C H

H H
Pt
surface
0
 Catalysts
● Thehydrogen atoms bond with the
carbon

H H
H H
H C C H

H H
Pt
surface
1
 Catalysts
H H

H C C H

H H H

H
Pt
surface
2
 Heterogenous Catalysts
● Summary: usually in 4 steps:
● Adsorption & activation of reactants
onto the catalytic surface.
● Migration of the adsorbed reactants
across the surface.
● Reaction of the adsorbed reactants.
● Escape (desorption) of the products.

3
 Homogenous Catalysts
● Chlorofluorocarbons catalyze the
decomposition of ozone.
● Both are in same phase (gas)
● Another example: Enzymes regulating
the body processes. (Protein catalysts)

4
 Catalysts and rate
● Catalysts will speed up a reaction but
only to a certain point.
● Past a certain point adding more
reactants won’t change the rate.
● Becomes Zero Order (saturation
kinetics)
● See saturation kinetics with renal
disease & some drugs
(aminoglycosides).
5
 Catalysts and rate.

R
a
t ● Rate increases until the active
e sites of catalyst are filled.
● Then rate is independent of
concentration
Concentration of
6
reactants
 Rate Laws: An Introduction
● Reactions are reversible.
● As products accumulate they can begin
to turn back into reactants.
● Early on the rate will depend on only
the amount of reactants present.
● So, we want to measure the reactants
as soon as they are mixed.
● This is called the Initial rate method.

7
 Rate Laws
● Two key points
● The concentration of the products do
not appear in the rate law because this
is an initial rate (only the [reactants]).
● The order must be determined
experimentally.
● Can’t be obtained from the equation’s
coefficients (unless it is single step -
more later on this).
8
 Rate Laws
● N2 + 3H2 2NH3
● When forward & reverse reaction rates
are equal then there is no change in
concentration of either.
● It’s at equilibrium.
● Rate = k[N2]n[H2]m
● Note: “m” and “n” are not coefficients of
the balanced equation (unless single
step), must be determined
experimentally.
9
 2 NO2 2 NO + O2
● You will find that the rate will only depend
on the concentration of the reactants.
● Rate = k[NO2]n
● This is called a rate law expression.
● k is called the rate constant.
● n is the order of the reactant - usually a
positive integer (1st, 2nd, etc.).

0
 Definition of Rate.

2NO2 → 2NO + O2

1
 Determining Rate Laws
● The first step is to determine the form of
the rate law (especially its order).
● Must be determined from experimental
data (not from the coefficients!!).
● You’ll do this type of lab in AP Chem.

2
 The method of Initial Rates
● This method requires that a reaction be
run several times (do in AP Chem).
● The initial concentrations of the
reactants are varied.
● The reaction rate is measured just after
the reactants are mixed.
● Eliminates the effect of the reverse
reaction and makes easier to calculate.

3
 Rate Law Example pp

● Write the general form of rate law for:

BrO3- + 5 Br- + 6H+ 3Br2 + 3 H2O
● Answer is . . .
● Rate = k[BrO3-]n[Br-]m[H+]p
● Determine n, m, p by comparing rates
● Add n, m, p values to get overall order

4
 Example Continued pp

● So, for the reaction BrO3- + 5 Br-

+ 6H+ 3Br2 + 3 H2O The general form of
the Rate Law is Rate = k[BrO3-]n[Br-]m[H+]p
● Be able to write this as the the answer to a
question, given the above reaction).
● We use experimental data to determine the
values of n,m, and p

5
 Initial concentrations (M) pp

Rate (M/s)

BrO3- Br- H+
0.10 0.10 0.10 8.0 x 10-4
0.20 0.10 0.10 1.6 x 10-3
0.20 0.20 0.10 3.2 x 10-3
0.10
Now we have0.10 0.20
to see how 3.2 x 10-3
the rate changes
with concentration

6
 Initial concentrations (M) pp

Rate (M/s)

BrO3- Br- H+
0.10 0.10 0.10 8.0 x 10-4
0.20 0.10 0.10 1.6 x 10-3
0.20 0.20 0.10 3.2 x 10-3
0.10n by ratio0.10
Find 0.201, in which
of Rate 2/Rate 10-3
3.2 xonly
[BrO3-] changes
n = 1 because (next slide)
7
 The math pp

● Rate 2 = 1.6 x 10-3 mol/Ls = k(0.20 mol/L)n(0.10 mol/l)m(0.10 mol/L)p

Rate 1 8.0 x 10-4 mol/Ls k(0.10 mol/L)n(0.10
mol/l)m(0.10 mol/L)p

● = 2.0 = (0.20 mol/L / 0.10 mol/L)n = (2.0)n

● So, n = 1
● Easy way: when the concentration was doubled
the rate was doubled so n = 1.
● This is the “take-home” message for you.

8
 Initial concentrations (M) pp

Rate (M/s)

BrO3- Br- H+
0.10 0.10 0.10 8.0 x 10-4
0.20 0.10 0.10 1.6 x 10-3
0.20 0.20 0.10 3.2 x 10-3
0.10 0.10
Find m by ratio of Rate 0.20
3/Rate 2, in3.2 x 10-3
which
only [Br-] changes
m = 1 (ditto on math)
9
 Initial concentrations (M) pp

Rate (M/s)

BrO3- Br- H+
0.10 0.10 0.10 8.0 x 10-4
0.20 0.10 0.10 1.6 x 10-3
0.20 0.20 0.10 3.2 x 10-3
0.10 0.10
Find p by ratio 0.20 1, in3.2
of Rate 4/Rate x 10-3
which
only [H+] changes
p = 2 (next slide)
0
 Initial concentrations (M) pp

Rate (M/s)

BrO3- Br- H+
0.10 0.10 0.10 8.0 x 10-4
0.20 0.10 0.10 1.6 x 10-3
0.20 0.20 0.10 3.2 x 10-3
0.10 double [H
When 0.10
1+
] the rate0.20
quadruples3.2 2 -3
so px=10
Double : quadruple = 2 : 4 = 2 : 22
1
 Example continued pp

● So, rate of reaction is first order in BrO3-

and Br- and second order in H+
● Overall rate = 1 + 1 + 2 = 4
● Rate law can be written as:

Rate = k[BrO3-][Br-][H+]2

2
 Rate Laws & Reaction Pathways
●A chemical reaction usually takes place in
several steps as the molecules collide.
● Elementary reaction - a reaction that happens
in a single step
● Reaction mechanism is a description of how
the chemical reaction really happens.
● It is a series of elementary reactions.
● The product of an elementary reaction is an
intermediate.
● An intermediate is a product that immediately
gets used in the next reaction.

3
 Reaction Mechanisms
● The series of steps that actually occur
in a chemical reaction.
● A balanced equation does not tell us
how the reactants become products.
● Kinetics can tell us something about the
mechanism.

4
 A Molecular Representation of the Elementary Steps in the

Reaction of NO2 and CO

Overall: NO2 + CO → NO + CO2

Step 1: NO2 + NO2 → NO3 + NO (k1)
Step 2: NO3 + CO → NO2 + CO2 (k2)
NO3 is an intermediate
5
 Reaction Mechanisms pp

● 2NO2 + F2 2NO2F
● The proposed mechanism is:
● NO2 + F2 NO2F + F (slow)
● F + NO2 NO2F (fast)
● F is called an intermediate. It is
formed then consumed in the reaction.
● Both steps are “elementary” steps.

6
 Reaction Mechanisms
● Each of the two reactions in the last
slide is called an elementary step.
● The rate for each reaction can be
written from its molecularity.
● Molecularity is the number of pieces
that must come together (collide) to
produce the reaction indicated by that
step.

7
 Reaction Mechanisms
● 2NO2 + F2 2NO2F The
proposed mechanism is: NO2 + F2
NO2F + F (slow) F + NO2
NO2F (fast) F is called an
intermediate. It is formed then consumed
in the reaction. Both steps are
“elementary” steps.
● Since the first one is slow & elementary it
is rate-determining.
● So, Rate = k[NO2][F2]
8
 ● Unimolecular step involves one molecule -
Rate is first order.
● Bimolecular step - requires two molecules -
Rate is second order
● Termolecular step - requires three molecules -
Rate is third order
● Termolecular steps are almost never heard of
because the chances of three molecules
coming into contact at the same time are
miniscule.
● With molecularity the coefficients can become
the exponents.
9
 ● A products ● Rate = k[A]
● A+A products
● 2A ● Rate= k[A]2
products
● Rate= k[A]2
● A+B products
● Rate= k[A][B]
● A+A+B Products
● Rate= k[A]2[B]
● 2A+B Products
● Rate= k[A]2[B]
● A+B+C Products
● Rate= k[A][B][C]

00
 Finding the Reaction Mechanism
● Must satisfy two requirements:
● Sum of the elementary steps does give
the overall balanced equation for the
reaction
● The proposed mechanism must agree
with the experimentally derived rate
law.

01
 Review Problems pp
● A reaction of X & Y occurs by a 1-step
mechanism: X + 2Y →XY2
● Write the rate law . . .
● Rate = k[X][Y]2
● What happens to rate if double [X]? . . .
● Rate is doubled (1st order in X)
● If double [Y]? . . .
● Rate is quadrupled (2nd order in Y)

02
 Review Problems pp
● A reaction of X & Y occurs by a 1-step
mechanism: X + 2Y →XY2
Rate = k[X][Y]2
What happens to the rate if only use 1/3
of Y? . . .
● Rate is 1/9 the original because . . .
● 2nd order in Y so (1/3)2 = 1/9

03
 Review Problems pp
● The rate of X reacting with Y doubles when
[X] is doubled, but increases 8 times when
[Y] is doubled. Write the rate law . . .
● Rate = k[X][Y]3 because . . .
● Double:double = 2:21 so “n” = 1, 1st order
● Double:8 times = 2:23 so “m”= 3, 3rd order.

04
 Review Problems pp
● The rate law for a single-step reaction
that forms only one product, C, is
Rate = k[A]2[B]
Write the balanced equation . . .
● 2A + B →C

05
 
This reaction takes place in three steps

06
 
Ea

First step is fast

Low activation energy

07
 

Ea

Second step is slow

High activation energy

08
 
Ea

Third step is fast

Low activation energy

09
 Second step is rate
determining

10
 Intermediates are
present
11
 Activated
Complexes or
Transition States

12
 Mechanisms and rates
● There is an activation energy for each
elementary step.
● Slowest step (rate determining) must
have the highest activation energy.

13
 Nuclear Review for Star Test

14
115
Types
Types of
of Radiation
Radiation
 Alpha particle (α )4 H e
2
 helium nucleus 2+ paper

 Beta particle (β -)0

 electron -1 e 1-
lead
 Positron (β +)
0
+1 e
 positron 1+
 Gamma (γ ) concrete
 high-energy photon 0
 116
Nuclear
Nuclear Decay
Decay
 Alpha Emission
238
92 U→ 234
90Th + He 4
2

parent daughter alpha

nuclide nuclide particle
Atomic & Mass Numbers must balance!!
117
Nuclear
Nuclear Decay
Decay
 Beta Emission
131
53 I→ 131
54 Xe + e 0
-1

electron
 Positron Emission
38
19 K→ 38
18 Ar + 0
+1 e
positron
118
Nuclear
Nuclear Decay
Decay
 Electron Capture (of inner orbital electrons)

106
47 Ag + e →
0
-1
106
46 Pd
Gamma Emission
electron
 Usually follows other types of decay.

Transmutation
 One element becomes another.

 Learning Check

Write the nuclear equation for the beta

emitter Cobalt-60. . .

60
Co 60
Ni + 0
e
27 28 -1

119
 Learning Check NR2

What radioactive isotope is produced in the

following bombardment of boron?

10
B + 4He ? + 1
n
5 2 0

120
21