| |



|
 |  |
2 Glass, carbon, stoneware, brick, rubber,
plastics, and wood
2 Have low structural strength
2 Used in the form of linings or coatings bonded
to metal supports.
2 Glass-lined or rubber-lined equipment has
many applications in the chemical &
Biochemical industries.
 @

@

2 Glass has excellent resistance
2 Susceptible to attack only by hydrofluoric acid and hot
alkaline solutions.
2 Particularly suitable for processes which have critical
contamination levels.
2 Limitation is its brittleness and damage by thermal shock.
2 Glassed steel combines the corrosion resistance of glass
with the working strength of steel.
2 Nucerite - a ceramic-metal composite made in a similar
manner to glassed steel and resists corrosive hydrogen-
chloride gas, chlorine, or sulfur dioxide at 650°C.
2 Its impact strength is 18 times that of safety glass and the
abrasion resistance is superior to porcelain enamel.


 @


2 Impervious graphite is completely inert to all but the most
severe oxidizing conditions.
2 Has excellent heat transfer so are very popular in heat
exchangers, as brick lining, and in pipe and pumps.
2 Limitation - low tensile strength.
2 Threshold oxidation temperatures are 350°C for carbon and
400°C for graphite.


 

2 Resistant to acids and chemicals as glass, but with the
advantage of greater strength.
2 Poor thermal conductivity and susceptibility to damage by
thermal shock.
2 Porcelain enamels are used to coat steel, but the enamel
has slightly inferior chemical resistance.
 (
  


2 Brick-lined construction can be used for many severely
corrosive conditions, where high alloys would fail.
2 Acidproof refractories can be used up to 900°C.
2 A number of cement materials are used with brick.
Standard are phenolic and furane resins, polyesters, sulfur,
silicate, and epoxy-based materials.
2 Carbon-filled polyesters and furanes are good against
nonoxidizing acids, salts, and solvents.
2 Silica-filled resins should not be used against hydrofluoric
or fluorosilicic acids. Sulfur-based cements are limited to
95°C while resins can be used to about 175°C.
2 The sodium silicate based cements are good against acids
to ‰

 
 


2 Natural and synthetic rubbers are used as linings or as structural

components for equipments.
2 By adding the proper ingredients, natural rubbers with varying
degrees of hardness and chemical resistance can be produced.
2 Hard rubbers are chemically saturated with sulfur. The vulcanized
products are rigid and exhibit excellent resistance to chemical
attack by dilute sulfuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid.
2 Natural rubber is resistant to dilute mineral acids, alkalies, and salts,
but susceptible to oxidizing media, oils, benzene, and ketones.
2 Chloroprene or neoprene rubber is resistant to attack by ozone,
sunlight, oils, gasoline, and aromatic or halogenated solvents.
2 Styrene rubber has chemical resistance similar to natural.
2 Nitrile rubber is known for resistance to oils and solvents.
2 Butyl rubber͛s resistance to dilute mineral acids and alkalies is
exceptional; resistance to concentrated acids, except nitric and
sulfuric, is good.
2 Silicone rubbers, also known as polysiloxanes, have
outstanding resistance to high and low temperatures as
well as against aliphatic solvents, oils, and greases.
2 Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, known as hypalon, has
outstanding resistance to ozone and oxidizing agents
except fuming nitric and sulfuric acids. Oil resistance is
good.
2 Fluoroelastomers (Viton A, Kel-F) combine excellent
chemical and high-temperature resistance.
2 Polyvinyl chloride elastomer (Koroseal) was developed
to overcome some of the limitations of natural and
synthetic rubbers.
2 It has excellent resistance to mineral acids and
petroleum oils.


2 In comparison with metallic materials, the use of plastics is limited to relatively
moderate temperatures and pressures (230°C is considered high for plastics).
2 Plastics are also less resistant to mechanical abuse and have high expansion rates,
low strengths (thermoplastics), and only fair resistance to solvents.
2 However, they are lightweight, are good thermal and electrical insulators, are easy
to fabricate and install, and have low friction factors.
2 Generally, plastics have excellent resistance to weak mineral acids and are
unaffected by inorganic salt solutions-areas where metals are not entirely
suitable.
Since plastics do not corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer another
advantage over metals: most metals are affected by slight changes in pH, or minor
impurities, or oxygen content, while plastics will remain resistant to these same
changes.
2 One of the most chemical-resistant plastics commercially available today is
tetrafluoroethylene or TFE (Teflon).
2 This thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all alkalies and acids except fluorine
and chlorine gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals. It retains its
properties up to 260°C.
2 Chlorotrifluoroethylene or CFE (Kel-F) also possesses excellent corrosion resistance
to almost all acids and alkalies up to 175°C. FEP, a copolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene, has similar properties to TFE except
that it is not recommended for continuous exposures at temperatures above
200°C.


2 In comparison with metallic materials, the use of plastics is limited to relatively
moderate temperatures and pressures (230°C is considered high for plastics).
2 Plastics are also less resistant to mechanical abuse and have high expansion rates,
low strengths (thermoplastics), and only fair resistance to solvents.
2 However, they are lightweight, are good thermal and electrical insulators, are easy
to fabricate and install, and have low friction factors.
2 Generally, plastics have excellent resistance to weak mineral acids and are
unaffected by inorganic salt solutions-areas where metals are not entirely
suitable.
Since plastics do not corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer another
advantage over metals: most metals are affected by slight changes in pH, or minor
impurities, or oxygen content, while plastics will remain resistant to these same
changes.
2 One of the most chemical-resistant plastics commercially available today is
tetrafluoroethylene or TFE (Teflon).
2 This thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all alkalies and acids except fluorine
and chlorine gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals. It retains its
properties up to 260°C.
2 Chlorotrifluoroethylene or CFE (Kel-F) also possesses excellent corrosion resistance
to almost all acids and alkalies up to 175°C. FEP, a copolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene, has similar properties to TFE except
that it is not recommended for continuous exposures at temperatures above
200°C.


2 In comparison with metallic materials, the use of plastics is limited to relatively
moderate temperatures and pressures (230°C is considered high for plastics).
2 Plastics are also less resistant to mechanical abuse and have high expansion rates,
low strengths (thermoplastics), and only fair resistance to solvents.
2 However, they are lightweight, are good thermal and electrical insulators, are easy
to fabricate and install, and have low friction factors.
2 Generally, plastics have excellent resistance to weak mineral acids and are
unaffected by inorganic salt solutions-areas where metals are not entirely
suitable.
Since plastics do not corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer another
advantage over metals: most metals are affected by slight changes in pH, or minor
impurities, or oxygen content, while plastics will remain resistant to these same
changes.
2 One of the most chemical-resistant plastics commercially available today is
tetrafluoroethylene or TFE (Teflon).
2 This thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all alkalies and acids except fluorine
and chlorine gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals. It retains its
properties up to 260°C.
2 Chlorotrifluoroethylene or CFE (Kel-F) also possesses excellent corrosion resistance
to almost all acids and alkalies up to 175°C. FEP, a copolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene, has similar properties to TFE except
that it is not recommended for continuous exposures at temperatures above
200°C.
 
Fairly inert chemically, is readily dehydrated by concentrated solutions and
consequently shrinks badly when subjected to the action of such solutions.
It also has a tendency to slowly hydrolyze when in contact with hot acids and
alkalies.
LOW- AND HIGH-TEMPERATURE MATERIALS
2 The extremes of low and high temperatures used in many industrial processes has
created some unusual problems in fabrication of equipment.
2 Some metals lose their ductility and impact strength at low temperatures,
although in many cases yield and tensile strengths increase as the temperature is
decreased. It is important in low temperature applications to choose materials
resistant to shock.
2 Minimum Charpy value of 15 ft . Lbf is specified at the operating temperature. For
severe loading, a value of 20 ft . lbf is recommended.
2 Ductility tests are performed on notched specimens since smooth specimens
usually show amazing ductility.
2 Among the most important properties of materials at the other end of the
temperature spectrum are creep, rupture, and short-time strengths.
2 Stress rupture is another important consideration at high temperatures since it
relates stress and time to produce rupture.
2 Ferritic alloys are weaker than austenitic compositions, and in both groups
molybdenum increases strength.
2 Higher strengths are available in Inconel, cobalt-based Stellite 25, and iron-base
A286.
2 Other properties which become important at high temperatures include thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion, ductility, alloy composition, and stability.
2 Strength and mechanical properties become of secondary importance in process
applications, compared with resistance to the corrosive surroundings.
2 All common heat-resistant alloys form oxides when exposed to hot oxidizing
environments.
2 Whether the alloy is resistant depends upon whether the oxide is stable and forms
a protective film.
2 Thus, mild steel is seldom used above 500°C because of excessive scaling rates.
Higher temperatures require chromium.
 GASKET MATERIALS
2 Metallic and nonmetallic gaskets of many different
forms and compositions are used in industrial
equipment.
2 The choice of a gasket material depends on the
corrosive action of the chemicals that may contact
the gasket, the location of the gasket, and the type of
gasket construction.
2 Other factors of importance are the cost of the
materials, pressure and temperature involved, and
frequency of opening the joint.
   | 
2 Engineer responsible for the selection of materials of construction must have a thorough understanding of
all the basic process information available.
2 This knowledge of the process can then be used to select materials of construction in a logical manner.
A brief plan for studying materials of construction is as follows:
1. Preliminary selection
Experience, manufacturer͛s data, special literature, general literature, availability, safety aspects,
preliminary laboratory tests
2. Laboratory testing
Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions
3. Interpretation of laboratory results and other data
Effect of possible impurities, excess temperature, excess pressure, agitation,and presence of air in
equipment
Avoidance of electrolysis
Fabrication method
4. Economic comparison of apparently suitable materials
Material and maintenance cost, probable life, cost of product degradation, liability to special hazards
5. Final selection
  |  |  | 
2 First cost of equipment or material often is not a good economic criterion when
comparing alternate materials of construction for chemical process equipment.
Any cost estimation should include the following items:
1. Total equipment or materials costs
2. Installation costs
3. Maintenance costs
4. Estimated life
5. Replacement costs
 (  |   |
2 Fabrication expenses account for a large fraction of the purchased cost for equipment. An
engineer, therefore, should be acquainted with the methods for fabricating equipment, and
the problems involved in the fabrication should be considered when equipment
specifications are prepared.
2 Many of the design and fabrication details for equipment are governed by various codes,
such as the ASME Codes. These codes can be used to indicate definite specifications or
tolerance limits without including a large amount of descriptive restrictions. For example,
fastening requirements can often be indicated satisfactorily by merely stating that all welding
should be in accordance with the ASME Code.
2 The exact methods used for fabrication depend on the complexity and type of equipment
being prepared. In general, however, the following steps are involved in the complete
fabrication of major pieces of chemical equipment:
1. Layout of materials
2. Cutting to correct dimensions
3. Forming into desired shape
4 . Fastening
5 . Testing
6 . Heat-treating
7 . Finishing
 

2 Layout of the various components on the basis of detailed instructions
prepared by the fabricator.
2 Flat pieces of the metal or other constructional material involved are
marked to indicate where cutting and forming are required.
2 Allowances losses caused by cutting, shrinkage due to welding, or
deformation caused by the various forming operations.
2 After the equipment starts to take shape, the location of various outlets
and attachments will become necessary.
2 If tolerances are critical, an exact layout, with adequate allowances for
deformation, shrinkage, and losses, is absolutely essential.

2 à
  



 
       

  
sheets.
2 The edge resulting from a shearing operation may not be usable for
welding, and the sheared edges may require an additional grinding or
machining treatment.
2 Burning can be employed to cut and, simultaneously, prepare a beveled edge suitable for
welding.
2 Carbon steel is easily cut by an oxyacetylene flame - heat effects on the metal are less than
those involved in welding.
2 Stainless steels and nonferrous metals that do not oxidize readily can be cut by a method
known as

   
2 An oxyacetylene flame is used, and powdered iron is introduced into the cut to increase the
amount of heat and improve the cutting characteristics.
2 The high temperatures involved may affect the materials, resulting in the need for a final
heat-treatment to restore corrosion resistance or removal of the heat-affected edges.
2 Sawing can be used to cut metals that are in the form of flat sheets.
2 Sawing is expensive, and it is used only when the heat effects from burning would be
detrimental.

2 Accomplished by rolling, bending, pressing, bumping (i.e., pounding), or spinning on a die.
2 Heating may be necessary in order to carry out the forming operation. Because of work
hardening of the material, annealing may be required before forming and between stages
during the forming.
2 When the shaping operations are finished, the different parts are assembled and fitted for
fastening.
2 The fitting is accomplished by use of jacks, hoists, wedges, and other means. When the fitting
is complete and all edges are correctly aligned, the main seams can be tack-welded in
preparation for the final fastening.
 

2 Riveting can be used for fastening operations, but electric welding is far more common and
gives superior results.
2 The quality of a weld is very important, because the ability of equipment to withstand
pressure or corrosive conditions is often limited by the conditions along the welds.
2 Although good welds may be stronger than the metal that is fastened together, design
engineers usually assume a weld is not perfect and employ weld efficiencies of 80 to 95
percent in the design of pressure vessels.
2 ?  



  which an electrode approximately 14 to 16 in. long is used
and an electric arc is maintained manually between the electrode and the material being
welded.
2 The electrode melts and forms a filler metal, while, at the same time, the work material fuses
together.
2 à



 is commonly used for welding stainless steels  carbon steels when
an automatic operation is acceptable.
2 The electrode is a continuous roll of wire fed at an automatically controlled rate. The arc is
submerged in a granulated flux which serves the same purpose as the coating on the rods in
the shielded-arc process.
2 ð
 
  is used for stainless steels and most of the nonferrous materials, can be
carried out manually, automatically, or semiautomatically.
2 A stream of helium or argon gas is passed from a nozzle in the electrode holder onto the
weld, where the inert gas acts as a shielding blanket to protect the molten metal. As in the
shielded-arc and submerged-arc processes, a filler rod is fed into the weld, but the arc in the
heliarc process is formed between a tungsten electrode and the base metal.
 
2 All welded joints can be tested for concealed imperfections by X rays, and code
specifications usually require X-ray examination of main seams.
2 Hydrostatic tests can be conducted to locate leaks. Sometimes, delicate tests, such
as a helium probe test, are used to check for very small leaks.
ð



2 After the preliminary testing and necessary repairs are completed, it may be
necessary to heat-treat the equipment to remove forming and welding stresses,
restore corrosion-resistance properties to heat-affected materials, and prevent
stress-corrosion conditions.
2 A low-temperature treatment may be adequate, or the particular conditions may
require a full anneal followed by a rapid quench.


2 The finishing operation involves preparing the equipment for final shipment.
2 Sandblasting, polishing, and painting may be necessary.
2 Final pressure tests at 1.5 to 2 or more times the design pressure are conducted
together with other tests as demanded by the specified code or requested by the
inspector.