MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES

MICROWAVES FREQUENCY BAND

MICROWAVES IN PERSPECTIVE

An electromagnetic waves with

frequencies that ranges from
approximately 1 GHz to 300 GHz or
more. And its wavelengths fall between
1cm and 60 cm.

Offers tremendous bandwidth for

communications and at least
temporarily resolve the problem of
spectrum crowding.
(available for new radio services as well as
for wide-bandwidth signals such as TV,
multiplexed signals, or computer data.)
MICROWAVES IN PERSPECTIVE

The RF spectrum below UHF is mostly

already fully occupied leaving little or
no room for the growth of new radio
services. The allocation of the RF
spectrum is handled by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC)
in the United States.
Used primarily for telephone
communications, radar, and satellite
communications.
Other microwave applications include
cable TV, space communications,
radio astronomy, and heating.
SQUEEZING SIGNAL TECHNIQUES

Use of SSB signals –

only one sideband is used which cuts
the spectrum usage in half
Limiting the deviation of FM signals–
helps to control the bandwidth
Improved receiver selectivity –
phase-shift keying, data
communications new modulation
technique
Multiplexing –
help put more signals in into a
single channel
DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES

More difficult to analyze

Different measurement techniques
Resistors, capacitors, and inductors
act like LCR circuits
Conventional semiconductors do
not work owing to internal
capacitances and long transit time
Special, expensive vacuum tubes
are used for power amplification
Line-of-sight transmission differences
Excessive signal reflection and absorption
 TRANSMISSION LINES

It is a means of carrying electromagnetic

energy from one place to another.

Balanced transmission line is not used

for microwaves because of radiation
losses. Coaxial cable is not used because
of its high attenuation.

Can be used as tuned circuits, filters and

even reactive components. In microwave
frequencies, it is constructed by using
printed circuit boards (PCB’s) or IC
manufacturing techniques.
MICROSTRIP AND STRIPLINE

Microstrip is a flat conductor separated

from a large conducting ground plane by
an insulating dielectric.
MICROSTRIP AND STRIPLINE

Stripline is a flat conductor sandwiched

between two ground planes. It is more
difficult to make, but it will not radiate as
microstrip does.

Both stripline and microstrip are widely

used to form the tuned circuits used in
microwave receiver front ends and in
the low-power amplifier sections of
transmitters
 WAVEGUIDE

A hollow metal pipe with a circular or

rectangular cross section used for
carrying microwave signals from one
place to another.

Acts like a high-pass filter, passing all

frequencies above its cut-of frequency and
rejecting those below it.
The preferred transmission line for
microwaves.
COUPLING POWER TO A WAVEGUIDE

3 common methods:

Probe: at an E-field maximum

Loop: at an H-field maximum

Hole: at an E-field maximum

 CUT-OFF FREQUENCY
The cutoff frequency fco of a waveguide
depends upon its physical size. iFor a
rectangular waveguide, it is 300/2a.
where a is the wide dimension of the
waveguide in meters.

300
f co 
2a
WAVEGUIDE WAVE PATHS

High Frequency

Medium Frequency

Low Frequency

Cut-off Frequency

As the operating frequency gets lower,

the angles decrease and the path
between the sides shortens.
 WAVEGUIDE

The microwave signal carried by a

waveguide is made up of electric (E)
and magnetic (H) fields that bounce
off the walls of the waveguide as they
propagate along its length.
 WAVEGUIDE

The modes of a waveguide describe

the various patterns of electric and
magnetic fields that are possible.

A transverse electric (TE) mode is one

where the electric field is transverse or
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.

A transverse magnetic (TM) mode is

one where the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
 
 WAVEGUIDE BEND

Waveguides are available in standard

lengths and sizes, and special pieces
are used for right-angle bends and 90°
twists.
 CAVITY RESONATORS

Half-wavelength sections of waveguides

with shorted or closed ends are known
as resonant cavities since they "ring" or
oscillate at the frequency determined by
their dimensions.

Cavity resonators are metallic chambers

of various shapes and sizes that are used
as parallel-tuned circuits and filters. They
have a Q of up to 30,000.
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTORS

Point-contact diode –
perhaps the oldest microwave
semiconductor device

Schottky or hot-carrier diodes –

has a metal semiconductor junction
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTORS
Point-contact and Schottky or hot-
carrier diodes are widely used as
mixers in microwave equipment as
they have low capacitance and
inductance.
Varactor diodes are widely used as
microwave frequency multipliers.
Multiplication factors of 2 and 3 are
common with power levels up to 20
Wand efficiencies up to 80 percent.
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTORS

Step-recovery or snap-off diodes are also

widely used as frequency multipliers with
multiplication factors up to 10, power
ratings up to 50 W. and efficiencies
approaching 80 percent.

A Gunn diode is a microwave

semiconductor device used to generate
microwave energy. When combined with
a microstrip, stripline or resonant cavity,
simple low power oscillators with
frequencies up to 50 GHz are easily
implemented.
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTORS

Both IMPATT and TRAPATT diodes are

GaAs devices operated with high reverse
bias to produce avalanche breakdown.
Both are used in microwave oscillators.

Tunnel diode is another negative

resistance diode. It is used to produce
low-power microwave oscillators.
 MICROWAVE TUBES

A klystron is a microwave vacuum tube

using cavity resonators to produce
velocity modulation of the electron beam
and produce amplification.
 MICROWAVE TUBES

Klystrons are available which produce

from a few to many thousands of watts.
Klystrons are being gradually replaced by
Gunn diodes and traveling-wave tubes.

A single-cavity reflex klystron is used as

a microwave oscillator.
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTORS

A magnetron is a diode vacuum tube

used as a microwave oscillator in radar
and microwave ovens to produce powers
up to the megawatt range.

In a magnetron, a strong magnetic field

creates circular paths of electron flow to
excite cavities into oscillation.
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTORS

A traveling-wave tube (TWT) is a

microwave power amplifier with very
wide bandwidth.

A microwave signal applied to a helix

around the TWT produces velocity and
density modulation of the electron beam
over a long distance which induces a
higher-power signal in the helix.
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

The most commonly used microwave

antenna is the horn, which is
essentially a rectangular waveguide
with a flared end.
 

A pyramidal horn flares in both

waveguide dimensions. A sectoral horn
flares in only one dimension. A conical
horn flares in a circular guide.
 
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

Horn antennas are directional and

produce a beam width in the 10° to 60°
range with a gain in the 10-to 20-dB
range, depending upon dimensions.

The gain and directivity of a horn is a

direct function of its various dimensions.

The length of a typical horn is computed

by the following formula :

300

f
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

The horizontal beam width of a pyramidal

horn may be computed with the simple
expression:

80
B
w/
Its gain can be computed by:

4KA
G
2
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

A parabolic or dish-shaped reflector is

used with most microwave antennas to
focus the RF energy into a narrow beam
and increase gain.

The parabolic reflector usually has a

diameter that is no less than 10
wavelengths at the operating frequency.
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

The gain and directivity of a parabolic

reflector antenna is directly proportional
to its diameter.

Given an area A=3.14piR2, its gain and

beam width can be computed by the
following formulas:

D 58
G  6  2 B
 D/
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
Parabolic reflector antennas are fed by
placing a horn antenna at the focal point
or by placing the horn at the center of the
reflector and placing a small reflector at
the focal point. The latter is known as
Cassegrain feed.
A helical antenna is made up of six to
eight turns of heavy wire or tubing to
form a coil or helix. It is fed with coax and
is backed up with a reflector.
 MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

Helical antennas are used at UHF and

microwave frequencies and have a gain
in the 12- to 20-dB range and a beam
width in the 12° to 45° range.

Helical antennas produce circular

polarization where the electric and
magnetic fields rotate. The polarization
may be right-hand or left-hand
depending upon the direction in which
the helix is wound.
Helical antennas can receive either vertically or
horizontally polarized signals but can only receive a
circularly polarized signal of the same direction.

A popular omnidirectional microwave antenna is the

bicone.

THE END