Operational amplifiers

Building blocks of servos

 Operational amplifiers (Op-amps)
Want perfect amplifier Op amp with feedback
• Infinite gain
• Infinite input impedance Summing Rf
– will not load down source junction
• Zero output impedance
– will drive anything If
Have operational amplifiers Vin Rin V inverting
1
• Gain ~ 106 - Vout
• Input impedance ~ 100 M  Iin
• Output impedance ~ 100 
Problems + non-inverting
• Gain too high
– slightest input noise causes max output Op amp
• Other problems to be discussed later
Solutions V1 = (Vout - Vin) Rin/(Rin+Rf) + Vin
• Use feedback Vout = -A V1
• Gain depends only on resistance: Rf / Rin
– can control precisely Vout = -Vin (Rf / Rin) / [1 + (1+ Rf / Rin)/A]
Small gain:
Vout = -A Vin Rf / (Rf + Rin) ~ divider
Large gain:
Vout = -Vin (Rf / Rin)
Note: V1 = -Vout / A ~ 0
 Differential amplifier
• Op amp output actually depends on voltage difference at two inputs
• Vout = - (Vin1 - Vin2) (Rf / Rin)
• Insensitivity to common voltage at both inputs = CMRR
• Real op amps have problems with unbalanced input impedance
Solution:
• Add input resistor and pot.
• Op amp with built-in resistors = instrumentation amp.

Non-ideal op-amp
Rf

Ideal op-amp circuit Vin1 Rin

Rf - Vout
Vin2 Rin
Rin V inverting
+
Vin1 1
Resistors to compensate
- Vout for non-ideal op-amp
~ Rf
+ non-inverting
Vin2
 Integrators
• Put capacitor in op amp feedback path
• Vout = - Vin (Zf / Rin) = - Vin / (2 jf C Rin)
• Similar to low pass filter in high frequency limit
– except applies to low frequencies also
– can show large gain near dc
• Recall V1 ~ 0 forces Iin = -Ifeedback
– charge on capacitor is integral of If
– since Vout = Q/Cf, Vout is integral of Iin
• Result is integrator
– integration speed ~ 1 / RinCf

Gain response
Single-pole rolloff
>60dB
6 dB/octave
= 10 dB/decade RC
Integrator
Cf log(Vout/Vin)
Unity gain at
f = 1 / 2 RC
If 0
log(f )
Vin Rin V
1 Phase response
- Vout log(f )
0 degrees
Iin Phase
+ shift -90 degrees
 Shunted integrator
• Limit dc gain
• Advantages:
– dc input voltage no longer saturates op amp output
– prevents servo runaway
• Dis-advantages
– long term errors not well corrected by servo

Gain response
Shunted integrator Max gain = Rf/Rin
Rf at f < 1 / 2 RfCf

log(Vout/Vin)
Unity gain at
Cf f = 1 / 2 RinCf
If 0
log(f )
Vin Rin V
1 Phase response
- Vout log(f )
0 degrees
Iin Phase
+ shift -90 degrees
 Real op amp
Op amp without feedback
• Acts like shunted integrator Gain response
Stability condition: Max gain
• unity gain freq. before second pole
Single pole
• otherwise feedback becomes positive 6 dB
log(Vout/Vin)
– oscillation Unity gain

0
log(f ) Double pole
12 dB
Real op amp
Vin
- Vout Phase response
log(f )
+ Phase
0 degrees

shift -90 degrees

-180 degrees
 Integrator with lead
High frequency gain has minimum value
Purpose:
• Provides phase lead
• Can compensate for pole in servo
Alternate circuits for lead
• Capacitor at input, inductor in feedback
• Overall positive phase
Gain response
– analog to faster than light propagation
– output anticipates input

Single pole
log(Vout/Vin) 6 dB
Min gain
Integrator with lead
Cf Rf 0
If log(f )

Vin Rin V Phase response

1
- log(f )
Vout
0 degrees
Iin Phase
+ shift -90 degrees
 Summing amplifier
Op amp
• High gain forces V1 ~ 0 Rf
• Feedback current must cancel input current
• Generalize to multiple inputs If
Vin Rin inverting
– Vout = -Rfeedback  Iin = -(Rf / Rin) Vin
- Vout
– Works because V1 ~ 0 Iin V1
• Summing amplifier + non-inverting
– Op amp input is summing junction
– Useful for combining multiple inputs
Summing amplifier
Vin1 Rin1 Summing Rf
junction

Vin2 Rin2 If
- Vout
Rin3 Iin V1
Vin3
+
 Drift-compensated integrator
Real op amps have leakage current
• Can saturate integrator
• Compensate with dc current to summing junction

Drift-compensated integrator
Cf
Rin If
Vin
V1
Iin - Vout
+V
Integrator Rc +
leakage
compensation
Ic
-V
 Trans-impedance amplifiers
• Input is current source
– model as voltage source with high impedance
– Iin = Vsource / Zsource
– Vout = -Zfeedback Vsource/ Zsource = -Iin Zfeedback Trans-impedance amplifier
• Trans-impedance amplifier Rf
– current in, voltage out
– gain expressed in Ohms If
inverting
Current
- Vout
source
Iin V1
Vsource + non-inverting
Zsource
Iin

V1
 Photodiode amplifier
• Photodiode like current source but with capacitor
• Input capacitor causes op amp gain to diverge at high freq.
– Amplifies high freq noise
– Oscillation
• Solution: Photo-diode amplifier
– Shunt capacitor in feedback
Shunt Cs
capacitor Rf
light

Gain response If
Unshunted Vbias
- Vout
log(Vout/Iin)

Shunted Ipd
+

Rpd
log(f )
Ipd
Cpd

Photo-diode
equiv. circuit
 Integrator design tips
Shunting switch with small value resistor
• Discharges capacitor
– initialize integrator/ servo
– simplify servo testing allow rest of circuit
Resistors on power supply rails
• Limits current to saturated op amp
– prevents burn out
Capacitors on supply rails
• Reduces noise
Note on capacitors
• High values
– electrolytic, polar Shunt switch on integrator
– leakage resistance
• Use low value in parallel
Rs switch
Filtered and limited
supply rails
Cf
If +15V

Rin V
1
- Vout
Vin
Iin
+ -15V