•First Industrial Revolution

•Introduction of machinery
•New organizational methods
•Changed the way people worked
•Second Industrial Revolution – Information Age
•Introduction of computers
•Introduction of networking and data communication
•Changed the way people worked again
• Faster communication  Collapsing Information lag
• Brought people together  Globalization
The Collapsing Information Lag
Historical developments in speed up the rate and volume of
electronic communications transmission of information

telegraph

1850 1900 1950 2007

Information took days or Information transmitted large quantities of

weeks to be transmitted in minutes or hours information transmitted in a
fraction of a second

growth of telecommunications and

especially computer networks Globalization
of networks
History of Information Systems

Online real-time, transaction

oriented systems (replaced batch PC LANs
Batch processing processing. DBMSs become become
mainframes common) common

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

PC revolution
Data communications over phone
Networking
lines (became common and
everywhere
mainframes became multi-user
systems)
Datacom Basics
Telecommunications =
Transmission of voice, video, and/or data
- Implies longer distances
- Broad term

Data Communications =
Movement of computer information by
means of electrical or optical transmission
systems

convergence

Broadband Communications
 Network Architecture

 The operation, growth, and maintenance of

computer and communication networks depend
on the network architecture.
 The network architecture include
 Protocols (or rules of communication),
 Standards (what is widely accepted and
practiced),
 Interfaces (physical communication), and
 Topologies (geometric or physical arrangement
of the network).
Network architectures
 Three major network architectures are :
 Host-based: The host was usually a mainframe
which performed the functions of data storage,
data access, application logic, and presentation
logic.
 In this architecture, the client was usually a
terminal.
 A major problem with this architecture is that
the host is required to do all the processing and
as the number of applications grows on a given
network, processing will slow-down
significantly.
Host-Based Architectures
or a PC running a
terminal emulation
program

– Client captures key strokes

then sends them to the
mainframe
– Client displays information
according to the server’s
instructions
 Network Architectures
 Client-based: The client, usually a low-cost
microcomputer does a good amount of processing
functions.
 specifically, the client performs the data access,
application logic, and presentation logic.
 The host, a server, simply stores the data.
 As the amount of data and the number of applications
grow in this type of architecture, more and more data
needs to travel on the network circuit so that the
clients can process it.
 Demand for network circuit capacity increases and as
such, the overall network performance decreases.
Client-Based Architectures

Example: Using a word

processing package on a PC
and storing data files on a
server
Network Architectures
 Client-Server: the client and the server share the
processing.
 the client performs the presentation logic and
the server performs the data access and data
storage.
 Either the server or the client performs the
application logic or they can divide the tasks
involved in this function.
 Client/server architecture has many advantages.
 Servers can be easily upgraded or added to the
network, at low costs, as demand for
processing and storage on the network
increases.
Client-Server Architectures
Server
Client (PC, mini,
(PC) mainframe)

Example: Using a Web

browser to obtain web pages
uses logic balanced between
the client and server
Network Architecture
 A major disadvantage of the client/server
architecture is its complexity.
 For client/server architecture, applications need
to be written such that they can work both with
the client and the server.
 All client/server applications have client and
server software components.
 Updating network software is also more
complex than other architectures since the
upgrade needs to be done on all clients and all
servers, which run the application.
Middleware
 Another advantage of this architecture is that it
allows software and hardware from different
manufacturers to work together on the same
network.
 Software called Middleware is used to facilitate
this process.
 Middleware performs two important functions.
 It facilitates communication between software
from different manufacturers, and it manages
the message transfer between the client and the
server.
Middleware
client application programs
a standard – Manages
way of message
translating transfers
between Middleware
– Insulates network
software changes from the
from clients (e.g.,
different adding a new
vendors server)
server application programs

Examples of standards for Middleware:

 Distributed Computing Environment (DCE)
 Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA)
 Open Database Connectivity (ODBC)
Standards
 Importance
 Provide a “fixed” way for hardware and/or software
systems (different companies) to communicate
 Help promote competition and decrease the price
 Types of Standards
 Formal standards
 Developed by an industry or government
standards-making body
 De-facto standards
 Emerge in the marketplace and widely used

 Lack official backing by a standards-making body

Standardization Processes
 Specification
 Developing the nomenclature and identifying
the problems to be addressed
 Identification of choices
 Identifying solutions to the problems and
choose the “optimum” solution
 Acceptance
 Defining the solution, getting it recognized by
industry so that a uniform solution is accepted
Major Standards Bodies
 ISO (International Standards for
Organization)
 ITU-T (International Telecommunications
Union –Telecom Group
 Based in Geneva, Switzerland (www.itu.int)
ANSI (American National Standards
Institute)
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers)
 IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
Layered Implementation of
Communications Functions
Single layer
Applications Applications implementation
-Networking with large
components is
OS OS complex to understand
and implement

Applications Applications Multi layer

implementation
OS OS -Breaking down into
smaller components
-Easier to implement
Network models (standards)
 The two most important such network models: OSI
and Internet
 Open Systems Interconnection Model
 Created by International Standards Organization
(ISO) as a framework for computer network
standards in 1984
 Based on 7 layers
 Physical layer
 Data link layer
 Network layer
 Transport layer
 Session layer
 Presentation layer
 Application layer
Network models (standards)
 Internet Model
 Created by DARPA originally in early 70’s
 Developed to solve to the problem of
internetworking
 Based on 5 layers
 Based on Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite
OSI models
 Application Layer
 set of utilities used by application programs
 Presentation Layer
 formats data for presentation to the user
 provides data interfaces, data compression and
translation between different data formats
 Session Layer
 initiates, maintains and terminates each logical session
between sender and receiver
 Transport Layer
 deals with end-to-end issues such as segmenting the
message for network transport, and maintaining the
logical connections between sender and receiver
OSI models
 Network Layer
 responsible for making routing decisions
 Data Link Layer
 deals with message description, error control
and network medium access control
 Physical Layer
 defines how individual bits are formatted to be
transmitted through the network
Message Transmission Using
Layers
sender receiver

Applications Applications

A receiving layer
wraps incoming
message with an
envelope A receiving layer
• Adds layer related removes the layer
addressing related envelope
information and forwards the
message up
Some Data Comm. Standards
Layer Common Standards
HTTP, HTML (Web)
5. Application layer MPEG, H.323 (audio/video)
IMAP, POP (e-mail)
TCP (Internet)
4. Transport layer
SPX (Novell LANs)
3. Network layer IP (Internet)
IPX (Novell LANs)
Ethernet (LAN)
2. Data link layer Frame Relay (WAN)
PPP (dial-up via modem for MAN)
RS-232c cable (LAN)
1. Physical layer Category 5 twisted pair (LAN)
V.92 (56 kbps modem)
Physical Layer
 This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model.
 It helps in the transmission of data between two
machines that are communicating through a physical
medium like optical fibre, copper wire or wireless etc.
The following are the main functions of the physical
layer:
 Hardware Specification: The details of the physical
cables, network interface cards, wireless radios, etc are
a part of this layer.
 Encoding and Signaling: How are the bits encoded
in the medium is also decided by this layer.
Binary Phase Shift
Keying
Physical Layer

 Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of

each bit of data is the responsibility of this layer.
 Topology and Network Design: The network design
is the integral part of the physical layer like placement
of router and hubs etc.
Data Link Layer
 This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by
using the services of the physical layer which transmits
bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion.
 This layer is concerned with :
 Framing : Breaking input data into frames (typically a
few hundred bytes) and caring about the frame
boundaries and the size of each frame.
 Acknowledgment : Sent by the receiving end to inform
the source that the frame was received without any
error.
Data Link Layer
 Sequence Numbering : To acknowledge which frame
was received.
 Error Detection : The frames may be damaged, lost or
duplicated leading to error. The error control is on
link to link basis.
 Retransmission : The packet is retransmitted if the
source fails to receive acknowledgment.
 Flow Control : Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep
pace with a slow receiver.
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
 Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.
Routing: This deals with determining how packets
will be routed (transferred) from source to destination.
It can be of three types :
 Static : Routes are based on static tables that are
"wired into" the network and are rarely changed.
 Dynamic : All packets of one application can follow
different routes depending upon the topology of the
network, the shortest path and the current network
load.
 Semi-Dynamic : A route is chosen at the start of each
conversation and then all the packets of the
application follow the same route.
Network Layer
 The services provided by the network can be of two
types
 Connection less service: Each packet of an application
is treated as an independent entity. On each packet of
the application the destination address is provided and
the packet is routed (postal).
 Connection oriented service: Here, first a connection
is established and then all packets of the application
follow the same route (telephone).
 Congestion Control: The dropping of the packets
should be minimized and the source whose packet was
dropped should be informed.
 Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple
networks that are connected in such a way that they
act as one large network.
Transport layer
 Offers direct end-to-end communication,
e.g., error-free transfer, between the source host
and the destination host.
 Data may have been reordered, doubled or lost on
its way through the network. This layer fixes such
errors.
 Flow Control : A fast host cannot keep pace with a
slow one. Hence, this is a mechanism to regulate the
flow of information.
 Connection Establishment / Release : The
transport layer also establishes and releases the
connection across the network.
Session , Presentation &
Application Layer
 The Session Layer: Offers sessions which can
continue even if a computer goes down
momentarily. E.g., a very large file transfer could
then pick up where it was.
 The Presentation Layer: Presents the
communication in a nice way. Compression and
decompression of data and Encryption of secret
data.
 The Application Layer: Electronic mail, File
transfer, etc.
Protocols
 Used by Network model layers
 Sets of standardized rules to define how to
communicate at each layer and how to interface
with adjacent layers

Layer N+1 Layer N+1

Layer N Layer N

Layer N-1 Layer N-1

sender receiver
Message Transmission Example
How the Web Works HTTP
Main Web communications protocol:
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Clicking on a hyperlink or
typing a URL into a browser
starts a request-response cycle
HTTP Response
A request-response cycle:
includes multiple steps since web
pages often contain embedded
files, such as graphics, each
requiring a separate response.
Example of an HTTP Request

Note that this HTTP Request message has no “Body” part.

Example of an HTTP Response
HTML - Hypertext Markup Language

 A protocol used to format Web pages

 Tags are embedded in HTML documents
 include information on how to format the file
 XML - Extensible Markup Language
 A new markup language becoming popular
TCP/IP and UDP
 TCP/IP pair work together
 Transmission Control Protocol contains the rules to
break files into packets before sending and receiving
into files upon receipt.
 Data can be lost in the intermediate network.
 TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to
trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and
completely received.
 Internet Protocol contains the rules used to transport
information packets from sender to destination across
networks or internet.
TCP/IP and UDP
 IP forwards each packet based on a four byte
destination address (the IP number).
 IP operates on gateway machines that move data
from department to organization to region and
then around the world.
 User Datagram Protocol used for connectionless
routing in TCP/IP suite that uses no acks, no flow
control.
SMTP : (E-mail Standards) & File Transfer
Protocol (FTP)
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 Originating user agent and the mail
transfer agent
 Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Mail
Access Protocol (IMAP)
 Main protocols used between the receiver
user agent and mail transfer agent
 FTP: Enables sending and receiving files over
the Internet
 Requires an application program on the
client computer and a FTP server program on
a server
 Commonly used today for uploading web
pages
What is a Topology?

 The physical topology of a network refers to the

configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals.
 Main Types of Physical Topologies are:
 Linear Bus
 Star
 Star-Wired Ring
 Tree
TOPOLOGY
Linear Bus
 A linear bus topology consists of a main run of
cable with a terminator at each end .
 All nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
 Ethernet and Localtalk networks use a linear bus
topology
 Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a
linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Linear Bus
Linear Bus
 Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in
the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the
backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution
in a large building.
Star
 A star topology is designed with each node
(file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub
or concentrator
 Data on a star network passes through the
hub or concentrator before continuing to its
destination.
 The hub or concentrator manages and
controls all functions of the network.
 This configuration is common with twisted
pair, coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
Star
Star
 Advantages of a Star Topology
 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network then connecting
or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear
topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached
are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies
because of the cost of the concentrators.
Tree
 A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus
and star topologies.
 It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable .
 Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing
network, and enable schools to configure a network
to meet their needs.
 Advantages of a Tree Topology
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software
venders.
Tree
 Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by
the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire
segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than
other topologies.
Tree
Considerations When Choosing a Topology:
 Money. A linear bus network may be the least
expensive way to install a network; do not have to
purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network
uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a
network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is
unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used
with star topologies.
Network Types (based on Scale)
 Local Area Networks (LAN) - room, building
 a group of PCs that share a circuit.
 Backbone Networks (BN) - less than few kms
 a high speed backbone linking together
organizational LANs at various locations.
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) - (more than
a few kms)
 connects LANs and BNs across different
locations
 Often uses leased lines or other services used to
transmit data.
 Wide Area Networks (WANs) - (far greater than 10
kms)
 Same as MAN except wider scale
 Value added Network (VANs) – third party,
LANs and Backbones, Wide Area and Metropolitan
Area Networks
Components of a Local Area Network
Why Use a LAN?
 Information sharing
 Having users access the same files, exchange
information via email, or use Internet
 Ex: single purchase order database accessed by
all users on the LAN
 Results in improved decision making
 Resource sharing
 Having hardware devices shared by all users
 Printers, Internet connections

 Having software packages shared by all users on

a LAN
 Results in reduced cost
Why Use a LAN?
 Sharing software on a LAN
 Purchase software on a per seat basis
 Install software on a server for all to use
 No need to have a copy on every computer on
the LAN
 Reduces cost
 Simplifies maintenance and upgrades
Basic LAN Components
Network Interface Cards
 Contains physical and data link layer protocols
 Includes a unique data link layer address (called
a MAC address), placed in them by their
manufacturer
 Includes a socket allowing computers to be
connected to the network
 Organizes data into frames and then sends them
out on the network
 Can be plugged into the PCMCIA port (for laptops
and notebooks)
 Also called network cards and network adapters
Network Cables
 Used to connect a computer physically to the network
 Types of cables
 Untwisted wire pairs (UTP) – leading LAN cable
type
 Shielded twisted pair (STP)
 Coaxial cable – heavy, not flexible
 Optical fiber – high capacity, just beginning in
LANs
 May include multiple different types cables
 Requires a special connector.
 Example: BALUN (Balanced-Unbalanced) connects
UTP and Coaxial Cable
Hubs
 Act as junction boxes, linking cables from several
computers on a network
 Usually sold with 4, 8, 16 or 24 ports
 May allow connection of more than one kind of
cabling, such as UTP and coax.
 Repeat (reconstruct and strengthen) incoming
signals
 Important since all signals become weaker with
distance
 Extends the maximum LAN segment distance
Network Types
 Dedicated server network
 A server (computer) permanently assigned a specific
task
 Web servers, e-mail servers, database servers
 Others
 File servers
 Allows many users to share the same files on a
common disk drive
 Typically with restricted access
 Print servers
 Handle print requests
 Could be a separate computer or a “black box”
 Remote Access Servers
 Enable users to dial in and out of the LAN by phone
(via modems)
Network Types
 Peer-to-peer network
 No dedicated servers used
 All computers act as both clients and servers
 Cheaper than dedicated, but less capability
Basic Architecture
Basic Architecture
 A computer using modem dials the number of
a another computer and creates a temporary
circuit
 When session is completed, circuit is
disconnected.
 Can be expensive (connection and traffic
based payment)
 Simpler design:


 What happens inside of network is hidden from the

user
 Basic Architecture

• CSU/DSU: Channel Service

Unit / Data Service Unit
RING
– Messages can be rerouted around the failed link (Data can flow in
both directions
– Messages need to travel through many nodes before reaching their
destination
Star
•Central computer routes all messages in the network
•Failure of central computer brings the network down
•Failure of any circuit or computer affects one site only
•Central computer becomes a bottleneck under high traffic

central routing
computer
MESH
 History of Wireless
 Radio- Jagdish Chandra Bose and Guglielmo Marconi.
 Wireless- First patent by Nikola Tesla.
 Wireless- Term used for everything for long time

Modern
 Wireless-
Era is a method of communication that uses low-powered radio waves to
transmit data between devices.
 Low Powered – Free
 High Powered – Government Regulated
Some Wireless Standards
 Bluetooth
 DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications)
 DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communications)
 HIPERLAN
 HIPERMAN
 IEEE 802.11
 IrDA
 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
 WiFi
 WiMAX
 xMax
 ZigBee
Wimax
 Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
 A certification mark for products that pass conformity and
interoperability tests for the IEEE 802.16 standards
 Run by Wimax Forum
Wireless LANs (WLANs)
 Use radio or infrared frequencies to transmit signals
through the air (instead of cables)
 Basic Categories
 Use of Radio frequencies
 802.1x family of standards (aka- Wi-Fi)

 Use of Infrared frequencies (Optical transmission)

 Wi-Fi grown in popularity
 Eliminates cabling
 Facilitates network access from a variety of locations
 Facilitates for mobile workers (as in a hospital)
 Used in 90 percent of companies
WLAN Topology
Same as Ethernet
Use the same radio • Physical star
frequencies, so • Logical bus
take turns using
the network

10Base-T or
100Base-T

Uses a NIC that

transmits radio A wireless Access Point (AP) connected
signals to the AP into an Ethernet Switch
Implications for Management
 Cost of LAN equipment dropping quickly
 Commodity market
 Flood of vendors into the market
 Varying quality of products

 Hard to justify the purchase of high quality LAN

equipment with cheap alternatives
 LANs more common everywhere
 Many new applications
 More network enabled devices
 Networked printers, scanners, vending
machines, etc.,
Implications for Management
 Embrace change and actively seek to use new
aspects of networks toward improving your
organization
 Information moved quickly and easily anywhere
and anytime
 Information accessed by customers and
competitors globally
 Use a set of industry standard technologies
 Can easily mix and match equipment from
different vendors
 Easier to migrate from older technologies to
newer technologies
 Smaller cost by using a few well known
standards
Implications for Management
 WLANs becoming common place
 Access to internal data, any time, any place
 Better protection of corporate networks
 Public access through WLAN hotspots
 Competition and overlap with cell phone technologies
 New cell phone technologies (faster, longer ranges)
 Drastic price drops of WLAN devices
 Widespread Internet access via multiplicity of devices
(PDAs, etc,)
 Development of new Internet applications
 New companies created; some old ones out of
business
 Drastic increase in the amount of data flowing around
Advantages of Wi-Max over Wi-fi
 Improved Performance

 Much Greater Distances

Usage Areas
 Broadband Internet Access

 Voip , IPTV services

 Cellular Phones
Learning objectives
 Describe components of telecommunication system
 Evaluate capacity of telecommunication channel and
its transmission media
 Compare types of networks and its services
 Identify application for supporting e-commerce
business
Management challenges
 Telecommunication revolution
 Components and functions of telecommunication
systems
 Communication networks
 E-commerce and e-business technologies
 Managing LAN
 Managing Bandwidth