|


Lecture 1: Overview
Sqn Ldr Sohail Ahmed
 |

 

˜ ransmitting voice and data using electromagnetic

waves in open space
˜
lectromagnetic waves
˜ ravel at speed of light (c = 3x108 m/s)
˜ as a frequency f and wavelength ^
Πc=f ^
˜ igher frequency means higher energy photons
˜ he higher the energy photon the more penetrating is the
radiation
|

 


˜ iquity: Can travel long distances and across
oceans
˜ oility
˜
asy to estalish a wireless link: no hardware
ased medium
˜ Can penetrate uildings
˜ Suitale oth for indoor and outdoor
communication
˜ Omni-directional: can travel in all directions
˜ Can e narrowly focused at high frequencies
(greater than 100) using paraolic
antennas (like satellite dishes)
 |

 



˜ oility leads to Doppler effect

˜ ultipath effect
˜ ireless channel is time varying: difficult to estimate
˜ nterferences from other users and sources
˜ Limited andwidth
˜ Limited power (especially in moile communication)
|

 
  

r Satellite Links
r LOS icrowave
˜ Cellular communication
˜ ireless LAN
˜ ireless Local Loop (LL)
r Space Communication
r Remote controls
r Sensor networks
r oile computing
r Cordless phones
r Pagers
r Radars
 4  

r 1831: Faraday had first started experimenting with
electromagnetic waves.
˜
lectromagnetic wave:
r one of the waves that are propagated y simultaneous
periodic variations of electric and magnetic field intensity
and that include
Πradio waves
Πinfrared
Πvisile light
Πultraviolet,
ΠX rays
ΠGamma rays
˜ Started with arconi¶s invention of radio.
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First oile Radio elephone 1924

 4  
 
 

r 1901: arconi successfully transmits radio signal across Atlantic
Ocean from Cornwall to Newfoundland
r 1902: First idirectional communication across Atlantic
r 1909: arconi awarded Noel prie for physics
r 1914: First voice over radio transmission
r 1920s: oile receivers installed in police cars in Detroit
r 1930s: oile transmitters developed; radio equipment occupied
most of police car trunk
r y 1934: Amplitude odulation (A) systems used y police cars
and stations
r 1935:
dwin Armstrong demonstrated frequency modulation (F)
for the first time. ajority of police systems converted to F
 4  
  

r 1946: First pulic moile telephone service was introduced.
First interconnection of moile users to pulic switched
telephone network (PS N)
r 1949: FCC (Federal Communications Commission) of S
recognies moile radio as new class of service
r 1950-1960: A Bell Las developed theory and
techniques for cellular telephony
4  
 




 


r 1959: he term "pager" was first used, referring to a otorola radio
communications product
r 1968: A proposed cellular telephony to FCC of S.
r 1974: he first pager was introduced y otorola.
r 1977: Pulic cell phone testing egan.
r 1979: orld¶s first cellular system was implemented y N Japan.
r 1980: 3.2 million pagers used wordwide. hey had limited range.
r 1980: Cordless phones started to emerge.
r
arly 1980s: ireless modems emerged.
r 1981:
uropean Nordic oile elephone (N ) System was
developed
r 1983: FCC allocated wireless spectrum for moile telephony.
r 1983: APS, first SA analog cellular telephony standard was
developed
 4  
 |
 
r 1987: 


802.11 ireless LAN working group founded.
r 1989: n
urope, GS was defined.
r 1990: n
urope, GS deployed.
r y 1990: ide-area paging had een invented and over 22
million pagers were in use
r 1990: FCC allocated spectrum in 900 h for cordless
phones.
r 1990: Announcement of ireless LAN products
  
4  

r 1991: First S digital cellular hardware was installed. S-54 and S-
136 emerged.
r 1991: RA moile (moitex) data service
r 1992: yperLAN in
urope
r 1992: orld Radio Conference in alaga (RC-92) allocated
frequencies for future  S use.
˜ Frequencies 1885 - 2025 and 2110 - 2200  were identified for  2000 use

r 1993: First GS 1800 system in commercial operation in 

r 1993: S-95 code-division multiple-access (CDA) spread-

spectrum digital cellular system deployed in S
r 1993: CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) over APS was realied
r 1994: GS system deployed in S
r 1994: there were over 61 million pagers in use and pagers ecame
popular for personal use.
4  
 


 !
"
r 1998: Bluetooth was orn. SG for Bluetooth has een
estalished y the leadership of 5 companies:
ricsson, B,
ntel, oshia, Nokia
r 1998: omeRF orking Group was formed.
r 1998: FCC gave 2.5 G spectrum for cordless phones
r 1998
S SG meeting in Paris oth -CDA and D-
CDA proposals were comined to  S air interface
specification.
4  
 #




r 1998: he first call using a Nokia -CDA terminal in
DoCoo's trial network was completed at Nokia's R D unit
near okyo in Japan.
r Jun 1998: CDA2000 sumitted to   for  -2000
r Dec 1998: he first meetings of the 3GPP echnical
Specification Groups in France.
r 1999: 


802.11 approved (11 ps)
r 1999: he first open Bluetooth specification 1.0 is released.
 4  
 #


r Jul 1999: Phase 1 CDA2000 standard complete and
approved for pulication
r Jul 1999:
orea elecom Freetel launches world's first S-
95B network in
orea
r 1999: Nokia claimed that it has completed the first CDA
call through the pulic switched telephone network in the
world
r Nov 1999:  -R ask Group 8/1 endorses CDA2000
standards (three modes) for  -2000
 4  
 #


r 1999:
S Standardiation finished for  S Release 1999
specifications oth for FDD and DD in Nice, France.
r ar 1999: arch 1999   approves radio interfaces for third
generation moile systems
r 1999: orld Radio Conference (RC-99) handled spectrum and
regulatory issues for advanced moile communications
applications in the context of  -2000
r June 2000: elstra and Nortel complete first 3G CDA2000 1X
data transmission
r 2001
ricsson and Vodafone 
claim to have made the world's
first CDA voice call over commercial network.
r Jun 2001: N DoCoo launched a trial 3G service
r June 2001: CDA2000 1x
V-DO recognied as part of the 3G
 -2000 standard
 4  
 #
  
 
r Aug 2001: 1 million commercial CDA2000 1X suscriers
r Oct 2001 N DoCoo launched the first commercial CDA 3G moile
network
r Nov 2001: Nokia and A ireless complete first live 3G
DG
call.
r Dec 2001: elenor launched in Norway the first commercial  S network
r Jan 2002: Verion ireless (S) launches commercial CDA2000 1X
service
r Jan 2002: Verion ireless (S) launches commercial CDA2000 1X
service
r Fe 2002: Nokia and Omnitel Vodafone claims to have made the first rich
call in an end-to-end All-P moile network at the 3GS orld Congress in
Cannes, France.
r ay 2002: 10 million commercial CDA2000 1X suscriers
r Jun 2003: arget date for  S Release 6
r 2005:  S service will e world-wide
 4  
 ·


˜ 4G:
r ust support data traffic ÷
 more cost-effectively than 3G
r Large peak data rates
r Over 2 illion voice users worldwide
r Preferaly, gloal convergence to a single standard
r ay not e ased on CDA; multi-carrier transmission eing
considered.

˜ iAX
˜ ltrawide and (B) systems
˜ Software defined radio
 |    $
˜ nitially nternet and elephone Networks is
designed assuming the user terminals are static
˜ No change of location during a call/connection
˜ A user terminals accesses the network always from a fixed
location
˜ oility and portaility
r Portaility means changing point of attachment to the
network offline
r oility means changing point of attachment to the network
online
 -
%  
˜ alking sers
˜ Low speed
˜ Small roaming area
˜ sually uses high-andwith/low-latency access

˜ Vehicles
˜ igh speeds
˜ Large roaming area
˜ sually uses low-andwidth/high-latency access
˜ ses sophisticated terminal equipment (cell phones)
 &
    


' 


  (
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  ,4
+|
,-4

 Cellular 1983 FDA 824-894 F 30

' - Cellular 1991 DA 824-894 DQPS

30

-- Cellular 1993 F/Packet 824-894 GS

30

) ./0 Cellular/PCS 1993 CDA 824-894 QPS

/BPS
1250
1800-2000

·1 Paging 1993 Simplex Several 4-FS

15

- .2/33 PCS 1994 DA 1850-1990 GS

200
, 

 Cordless/PCS 1994 DA/FDA 1850-1990 DQPS
300
 &
    

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)

  ,4
+|
,-4

 Cellular 1985 FDA 900 F 25

./33 Cellular 1986 FDA 890-960 F 12.5

  Cellular/PCS 1990 DA 890-960 GS

200


.403 Cellular 1985 FDA 450-465 F 20-10

  Paging 1993 FDA4 Several 4-FS

25

5 Cordless 1989 FDA 864-868 GFS

100

- Cordless 1993 DA 1880-1900 GFS

1728

- .2633 Cordless/PCS 1993 DA 1710-1880 GS

200
|

 

Lecture 2: ireless Channel

Sqn Ldr Sohail Ahmed
 + . 
 

˜ Radio waves are

˜
asy to generate
˜ Can travel long distances
˜ Can penetrate uildings
˜ hey are oth used for indoor and outdoor communication
˜ hey are omni-directional
˜ hey can e narrowly focused at high frequencies (greater than
100) using paraolic antennas (like satellite dishes)

˜ aves ehave more like light at higher frequencies

˜ Difficulty in passing ostacles
˜ ore direct paths
˜ hey ehave more like radio at lower frequencies
˜ Can pass ostacles
 + . 
 

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˜ he physical mechanisms that govern radio propagation are complex
and diverse, ut generally attriuted to the following three factors
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
r  % 

˜ Occurs when waves impinges upon an ostruction that is much

larger in sie compared to the wavelength of the signal
˜
xample: reflections from earth and uildings
˜ hese reflections may interfere with the original signal
constructively or destructively
   
 


r - %%
 

˜ Occurs when the radio path etween sender and receiver is

ostructed y an impenetrale ody and y a surface with sharp
irregularities (edges)
˜
xplains how radio signals can travel uran and rural
environments without a line-of-sight path

r  


˜ Occurs when the radio channel contains ojects whose sies are
on the order of the wavelength or less of the propagating wave
and also when the numer of ostacles are quite large.
˜ hey are produced y small ojects, rough surfaces and other
irregularities on the channel
˜ Follows same principles with diffraction
˜ Causes the transmitter energy to e radiated in many directions
˜ Lamp posts, trees and street signs may cause scattering
   
 



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˜ As a moile moves through a coverage area, these 3
mechanisms have an impact on the instantaneous
received signal strength.
˜ f a moile does have a clear line of sight path to the ase-
station, than diffraction and scattering will not dominate the
propagation.
˜ f a moile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction and
scattering will proaly dominate the propagation.
   
 
.
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˜ As the moile moves over small distances, the
instantaneous received signal will fluctuate rapidly
giving rise to small-scale fading
r he reason is that the signal is the sum of many contriutors
coming from different directions and since the phases of
these signals are random, the sum ehave like a noise (e.g.
Rayleigh fading).
r n small scale fading, the received signal power may change
as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30dB or 40dB), when
the receiver is only moved a fraction of the wavelength.
   
 

.
 
˜ As the moile moves away from the transmitter over larger
distances, the local average received signal will gradually
decrease. his is called large-scale path loss.
˜ ypically the local average received power is computed y averaging
signal measurements over a measurement track of 5^ to 40^
For PCS,
this means 1m-10m track)
˜ he models that predict the mean signal strength for an
aritrary-receiver transmitter ( -R) separation distance are
called large-scale propagation models
˜ seful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
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˜ Free space power received y a receiver antenna separated from
a radiating transmitter antenna y a distance d is given y Friis
free space equation:

Pr(d) = (PtGtGr^2) / ((4)2d2L) [
quation 1]

r Pt is transmitted power
r Pr(d) is the received power
r Gt is the transmitter antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
r Gr is the receiver antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
r d is -R separation distance in meters
r L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >= 1)
ΠL = 1 indicates no loss in system hardware (for our purposes we
will take L = 1, so we will ignore it in our calculations).
r ^ is wavelength in meters.
 ·
. 
 

r he gain of an antenna G is related to its affective aperture
Ae y:
˜ G = 4Ae / ^2 [
quation 2]
r he effective aperture of Ae is related to the physical sie of
the antenna,
± ^ is related to the carrier frequency y:
r ^ = c/f = 2c / c [
quation 3]
Πf is carrier frequency in ert
Πc is carrier frequency in radians per second.
Πc is speed of light in meters/sec
 ·
. 
 
 

˜ Path loss, which represents signal attenuation as positive
quantity measured in dB, is defined as the difference (in
dB) etween the effective transmitted power and the
received power.

PL(dB) = 10 log (Pt/Pr) = -10log[(GtGr^2)/(4)2d2] [
quation 4]

r f antennas have unity gains

PL(dB) = 10 log (Pt/Pr) = -10log[^2/(4)2d2] [
quation 5]

  %

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3

˜
q. 1 does not hold for d=0. So we define reference distance d0

r Pr(d) = Pr(d0)(d0/d)2
˜ Reference distance d0 for practical systems:
˜ For frequncies in the range 1-2 G
r 1 m in indoor environments
r 100m-1km in outdoor environments
 
  
 

˜
xtension of the free-space

model to other channels.
˜ he average large-scale path
loss for an aritrary -R
separation is expressed as a !

! Ä
 Ä
function of distance y using a !
path loss exponent .
!
˜ he value of  depends on the
!Ä
! Ä ö 
 Ä
propagation environment: for !
free space it is 2; when
ostructions are present it has
a larger value.
  7

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nvironment Path Loss
xponent, 
Free space 2

ran area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5

Shadowed uran cellular radio 3 to 5

n uilding line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8

Ostructed in uilding 4 to 6

Ostructed in factories 2 to 3
 .

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˜ Path loss equation given aove does not consider the
fact the surrounding environment may e vastly
different at two locations having the same -R
separation
˜ his leads to measurements that are different from
the predicted values otained using the aove
equation.
˜ easurements show that for any value d, the path
loss PL(d) in dBm at a particular location is random
and distriuted normally.
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˜ he log-normal shadowing model indicates the
received power in dBs at a distance d is normally
distriuted with a distance dependent mean and with
a standard deviation of |
˜ n practice the values of n and |
are computed from
measured data using linear regression so that the
difference etween the measured data and estimated
path losses are minimied in a mean square error
sense.
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˜ any echoes are received due to reflections

˜ As data rate goes up, numer of its sent etween echoes
goes up



  

   





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Function

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˜ Received signal consists of many multipath
components
˜ Amplitudes change slowly
˜ Phases change rapidly
r Constructive and destructive addition of signal
components
r Amplitude fading of received signal
˜ he channel has time-varying statistics
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˜ nmitigated, flat
fading kills the
system
˜ Aout an extra
30dB needed!
(1000 times more
signal power )
˜ Clearly, wireless
systems need a /%

way around this

catastrophe
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˜ Doppler spread Bd is the range of frequencies over which
the Doppler spectrum is non-ero.
Bd ” fd
˜ Coherence time c is the statistical measure of the time
during which the channel impulse response remains more
or less invariant
c § 1/ Bd
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˜    

 is the time etween the
first and last received component. Also referred to as
7  7:
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% (P) gives the average
power output of the channel impulse response (CR) as a
function of time delay.
˜ here is measurements-ased evidence that the P can e
approximated y an exponentially decaying function

where ı is the standard deviation of the delay , i.e.,



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˜ Large Differential Path Delays

˜ Signal B > Coherence Bandwidth
˜ Phase and Amplitude Distortion
˜ ntroduces S
˜ ran/Su-ran Cellular Channel
˜ ideand signal
· 
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˜ sed to model the statistical nature of

the envelope (amplitude) of the
received signal when the transmitted
signal suffers from small-scale fading.
˜ Rayleigh
˜ Rician
˜ Nakagami-m
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˜ ireless frequency
spectrum is limited
˜ All wireless users
inherently interfere with
each other (Power falls
off rapidly with distance
though, thankfully)
˜ ow to divide the
resources and e roust
to interference?