ELECTRICAL

SYSTEM

Document By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
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 Electric Power Supply Systems

 Due to insulation consideration the generating

units generate AC voltages between 11kV and
33kV.
 At the power plant site, the 3-phase voltage
is stepped up to a higher voltage like 220
kV & 400 kV to minimize the transmission
losses.
 Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110
kV, 66 kV or 33 kV constitutes the next link
towards the end user.
 Distribution at 11 kV / 6.6 kV / 3.3 kV
constitutes the last link to the consumer.
 Energy sources in power
generating plant
 Fossil fuels - such as coal, oil, natural gas

 nuclear energy
 falling water (hydel)
 Unconventional fuels - such as solar
energy , wind energy , waste materials
 HEAT RATE
 Where fuels are the source of generation, a
common term used is the “HEAT RATE” which
reflects the efficiency of generation.
 “HEAT RATE” is the heat input in kilo Calories or
kilo Joules, for generating ‘one’ kilo Watt-hour of
electrical output.
 1 kilo Watt hour = 860 kilo Calories = 3600 kilo
Joules.
 The “HEAT RATE” expresses in inverse the
efficiency of power generation.
 Thermal Power Generation

 About 70% of power generating capacity

in India is from coal based thermal power
plant.
 In India efficiency of coal based power
plants is 28% to 35% depending on size,
age of plant, operational practices and
capacity utilization.
Principle of Thermal Power Plant
 Coal is pulverized to the consistency of talcum
powder.
 This powdered coal is then burned in boiler.
 The heat in the combustion gas is transferred into
steam.
 This high-pressure steam is used to run the steam
turbine to spin.
 Finally turbine rotates the generator to produce
electricity.
Transmission and Distribution Lines

 The T&D network include step-up & step-

down sub-stations, transmission &
distribution lines.
 There is no difference between a
transmission line and a distribution line
except for the voltage level and power
handling capability.
 Transmission lines operate at high
voltages and transmit large quantities of
electric energy over great distances.
 Advantages of High transmission & distribution voltage

Reduction in Line
Current

Decrease line Decrease line

Smaller economical
power loss in the voltage drop in the
wire sizes can be
ratio of square of ratio of voltages
used
voltages
 Problem
• If the voltage level of the electricity distribution
system is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV for the
same loading conditions, the distribution losses
are reduced by a factor of
a) 1/9 b) 1/3 c) 1/6
• In electricity distribution, if the voltage is raised
from 11 kV to 33 kV for the same loading
conditions, the voltage drop in the distribution
system would be lower by a factor of
a) 1/4 b) 1/2 c) 1/3
 Cascade Efficiency
 The cascade efficiency in the T&D system from
output of the power plant to the end use
= 0.995 x 0.99 x 0.975 x 0.96 x 0.995 x 0.95
= 87%
 The standard technical losses are around 17 % in
India (Efficiency = 83%). But the figures for many
of the states show T & D losses ranging from 17 –
50 %. All these may not constitute technical
losses, since un-metered and pilferage are also
accounted in this loss.
ONE Unit saved = TWO Units
Generated
 Overall energy efficiency
= Efficiency x Efficiency x Efficiency x Efficiency
of Technical of distribution of Motor of mechanical
Losses network system

= 0.83 x 0.95 x 0.9 x 0.70

= 0.50
i.e. 50% efficiency

 Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to

two units generated in the power plant.
ELECTRICITY TARIFFS
In India, there are broadly 4 types of
Electricity Tariffs.
– Single part tariff
• Measurement of kWh only - Energy charges -
Generally applicable for LT installations only.
– Two part tariff
• kWh - Energy charges
• kVA or kW - Maximum demand charges
• PF Penalty/Incentives - vary from region to region
• Applicable for HT installations
 ELECTRICITY TARIFFS
– Three part tariff
• kWh - Energy charges
• kVArh - Reactive Energy charges
• kVA or kW - Maximum demand charges
• PF Penalty- vary from region to region
• Applicable for HT installations
– Time of day tariff
• Different charges for the various quantities mentioned above
depending on the time of the day
• Encourage user to draw more power during off- peak hours & less
power during peak hours as off peak hour tariff charged are quite
low in comparison to peak hour tariff
• Hence TOD tariff helps in achieving flat demand curve. Flat demand
curve helps to achieve high plant efficiency.
 Maximum demand Charges
 MD is not the instantaneous demand drawn, as is often
misunderstood.
 MD is the time integrated demand over the predefined recording
cycle.
 The month’s MD will be the highest among such demand
values recorded over the month. Thus,even if, average MD
is low, the industry / facility has to pay for the MD charges
for the highest value registered during the month, even if it
occurs for just one recording cycle duration i.e., 30 minutes
during whole of the month.
 Problem 1
Compute the maximum demand recorded
for a plant where the recorded load is as
mentioned below in the recording cycle of
30 minutes.
- 100 kVA for 10 minutes
- 200 kVA for 5 minutes
- 50 kVA for 10 minutes
-150 kVA for 5 minutes
 Solution
The MD recorder will be computing MD as:

= (100 x 10) + (200 x 5) + (50 x 10) + (150 x 5)

30
= 108.3 kVA
 Outputs from Electromagnetic Trivector
meters
 Maximum demand registered during billing cycle
 Active energy in KWh during billing cycle
 Reactive energy in KVARh during billing cycle
 Apparent energy in KVAh during billing cycle.
Outputs from Electronic Trivector Meter

 Memory for logging and recording all relevant

events
 High accuracy
 Amenability to TOD tariffs
 Measurement of harmonics and THD
 Amenability for remote data access/downloads.
 Tamper detection /recording
 Long life as there is no moving parts
Electrical Load Management - need for
reducing peak demands

 From power generation angle it is required as

capacity addition is costly process.

 From user angle it is required as the demand

charges is part of the electricity bill.
 Step By Step Approach for
Electrical Load Management
 1. Load Curve Generation
 Load curve is a plot of the
load demand of a
consumer against time of
the day .
 If it is plotted for the 24 hrs
of a single day, it is known
as a 'hourly load curve'
 If it is plotted over days of a
month, it is called daily load
curves.
 These curves helps in
predicting patterns of
drawl, peaks & valleys &
energy use .
 2. Rescheduling of Loads
By analyzing operation flow chart & process
chart it is possible to reschedule the operations
& running of equipments in such a way as to
reduces the maximum demand.
 3. Shedding of Non-Essential
Loads
 Maximum Demand Controller gives alarm when
demand approaches a preset value.
 If corrective action is not taken, the controller
switches off non-essential loads in a
predetermined logical sequence programmed by
the user.
 The plant equipments selected for the load
management are stopped and restarted as per
the desired load profile.
4. Operation of Captive Generation
and DG Sets
Use D.G. sets for durations when demand
reaches the peak value.
 5. Storage of Products material
 Product materials can be produced and stored using
electricity during Off peak periods.
 Off peak hour operations also help to save energy
due to favorable conditions such as lower ambient
temperature etc.
Example:
(i) in refrigeration system chilled water storage is done .
(ii) in milk & dairy industry ice is made in lean period
and used in peak load period.
 6. Automatic Power Factor Control Relay
 The power factor varies as a function of the load
requirements . APFC relay controls the power factor of
the installation by switching on or off capacitors .
 The built-in power factor transducer measures the
power factor of the installation and converts it to a DC
voltage of appropriate polarity which is compared with
a reference voltage. The reference voltage can be set
by means of a knob calibrated in terms of power factor
. When the power factor falls below setting, the
capacitors are switched on in sequence.
 To prevent hunting, a dead band is provided. Only
when the PF goes beyond this range, the relay acts.
When load current is below setting under current
blocking (low current cut out) shuts off the relay,
switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence.
Automatic Power Factor Control Relay

R Y B

APFCR
CAPACITOR
MEASURING OUTPUT BANKS
UNIT RELAYS

TO LOAD
 Major industrial loads

 Resistive load

 Inductive load .
 Resistive loads
 Resistive loads are incandescent lighting
and resistance heating.
 In case of pure resistive loads, the voltage
, current , resistance relations are linearly
related, i.e.
V = I x R and
Power (kW) = V x I
 Inductive loads
 Inductive loads require two kinds of power
Active power to perform work.(Measured in kW)
Reactive power to create and maintain electro magnetic
fields. ( Measured in kVAr ).
 In a pure inductive circuit kVAr lag kW by 90°
 The vector sum of the active power and reactive power
make up the total (or apparent) power used. It reflects the
actual electrical load on distribution system. (Measured in
kVA)
Examples of Inductive Loads

Induction Motor Arc Furnace

0.8 P.F 0.8 P.F

Floursent
Lamp

0.5 P.F.

Induction Welding
Furnace Transformer

0.8 P.F 0.5 P.F.

 Power Factor
 Pf = Active Power (kW)
Apparent Power (kVA)
 Power Factor can never be
greater than 1.00
 Power Factor at best can
be equal to 1.00
 Usually P.F is always “Lag”
( Inductive) as predominant
load in industry is of
inductive nature
 How to improve power factor?
• Power Factor can be improved by
installing shunt capacitors to the
• Representation
distribution system (series capacitors are
adopted for voltage boosting in
distribution networks.)

Inductive Load
• Capacitors act as reactive power Active power
generators, and provide the needed
reactive power to accomplish kW of work. Reactive power

This reduces the amount of reactive

power, and thus total power, generated by
the utilities.
• Theoretically, when electric utilities supply

Inductive Load
power, if all loads have unity power factor, Active power
maximum power can be transferred for
the same distribution system capacity.

Capacitor
Reactive power
 Selection of capacitors
• KVAr Rating of capacitor needed
= kW [ tan φ1 – tan φ2]

where kW is the average power drawn

φ1 = Existing (Cos-1 PF1)
φ2 = Improved (Cos-1 PF2)
Location of Capacitors

1. Individual Compensation

2. Group Compensation

3. Central Compensation
Individual Compensation

 Directly at the Load terminals

 Gives maximum benefit to user
 Costly solution
 Group Compensation
 Single compensation for Group of
Loads
 Example - Group of Motors
 Gives moderate benefit to user
 Few Capacitor Banks
 Relatively easy to maintain
 Central Compensation
 Directly connected at the incomer
 Improves PF at the metering point
 Line losses continue to prevail down
stream
 Least beneficial to user
 Extremely easy to maintain
• Central compensation – at main incomer bus – Pos. No 1
• Group compensation - at power distribution boards – Pos. No. 2.
• Individual compensation - at individual load terminals - pos. No. 3

Supply Bus

Transformer

Circuit Breaker
No 1
No 2 No 2

No 3 M No 3 M No 3 M No 3 M

Fig. 3.3
 Advantages of
PF improvement

Voltage drop KV A loading on

Current
Improved in the system the generators
from the source
power factor are reduced transformer ,
end is reduced
cables etc reduced

Better voltage at
Reduced investment
Reduced KVA Reduced Power Motor terminals &
Eliminates low pf generators ,
(Maximum demand) losses this improves motor
penalty charges transformers, cables,
charges in utility bill in the system performance
switchgears etc
 Problem 2
A 3 phase, 415 V, 110 kW induction motor is
drawing 50 kW at a 0.75 PF. Calculate the capacitor
rating requirements at motor terminals for improving
PF to 0.95. Also calculate the reduction in current
drawn and kVA reduction , from the point of installation
back to the generating side due to the improved PF.
 Solution
kVAr Rating = kW [Tan φ 1 – tan φ 2]
Cos φ 1 = 0.75, Hence Tan φ 1 = 0.882
Cos φ 2 = 0.95,Hence Tan φ 2 = 0.329
kVAr Rating = 50 kW (0.882 – 0.329) = 27.65 kVAr

Current drawn at 0.75 PF = 50 / √3 x 0.415 x 0.75 = 92.8 A

Current drawn at 0.95 PF = 50 / √3 x 0.415 x 0.95 = 73.3 A
Reduction in current drawn = 92.8 – 73.3 = 19.5 A

Initial kVA at 0.75 PF = 50 / 0.75 = 66.7 kVA

kVA at 0.95 PF = 50 / 0.95 = 52.6 kVA
Reduction in kVA = 66.7 – 52.6 = 14.1 kVA
 Problem 3
The contract demand of a process plant is 5000 kVA with the
electricity supply utility company. The average monthly
recorded maximum demand of the process plant is 4600 kVA at
a power factor of 0.80. The utility bill analysis provides the
following tariff structure.
a) Minimum monthly billing demand is 75% of the contract
demand or the actual recorded maximum demand whichever is
higher.
b) Monthly maximum demand (MD) charge is Rs. 300 per
kVA.
Find out the optimum limit of power factor capacitor
requirement entirely from the view of reducing maximum
demand so that no excess demand charges are paid to the
supply company. Also work out the simple payback period,
assuming cost of power factor capacitor installation along with
automatic power factor correction controller is as Rs. 500 per
kVAr.
 Solution
Minimum payable demand = 5000 x 0.75 = 3750 kVA
Margin available for reduction of MD = 4600 – 3750 = 850 kVA
Present load in kW = 4600 x 0.80 = 3680 kW
Desired power factor = 3680/ 3750 = 0.9813
Power factor capacitor requirement to achieve the desired power
factor
= 3680 [tan (Cos-1 0.8) – tan (Cos-1 0.9813)]
= 2038 kVAr (say 2050 kVAr)
Cost of power factor capacitor installation
= Rs. 500 per kVAr x 2050 kVAr = 10.25 lakhs
Monthly savings due to MD reduction = 850 kVA
Yearly savings = 850 x 300 x 12 = Rs. 30.60 lakhs
Simple payback period = investment cost / yearly savings = 10.25/
30.6 = 0.335 years = 4 months
 Problem 4
A chemical plant has a contract demand of 2500 kVA with
the power supply company. The average maximum demand
of the plant is 2000 kVA at a power factor of 0.95. The
maximum demand is billed at the rate of Rs.300/kVA. The
minimum billable maximum demand is 75 % of the contract
demand. An incentive of 0.5 % reduction in energy charges
component of electricity bill are provided for every 0.01
increase in power factor over and above 0.95. The average
energy charge component of the electricity bill per month for
the company is Rs.10 lakhs. The plant decides to improve
the power factor to unity. Determine the power factor
capacitor kVAr required, annual reduction in maximum
demand charges and energy charge component. What will
be the simple payback period if the cost of power factor
capacitors is Rs.800/kVAr
Kvar required to improve power factor from 0.95 to 1 = kW ( tan θ 1 – tan θ 2)
= 2000 x 0.95 x ( tan (cos-0.95) – tan (cos-)
= 1900 (0.329 - 0) = 625 kVAr

Cost of 625 kVAr capacitors @ Rs.800/kVAr = Rs.5,00,000

Maximum demand at unity power factor 1900/1 = 1900 kVA
75 % of contract demand = 1875 kVA.
As actual MD is 1900 KVA which is more than 1875 KVA hence the utility will
charge 1900 KVA
Hence reduction in MD = 2000KVA – 1900 KVA = 100 KVA
Reduction in Demand charges = 100 kVA x Rs.300 = Rs.30000 x 12
= Rs.3,60,000

Percentage reduction in energy charge from 0.95 to 1 @ 0.5 % for every 0.01
increase = 2.5 %
Monthly energy cost component of the bill is Rs.10,00,000
Reduction in energy cost component = 10,00,000 x (2.5/100)
= Rs.25,000/month
Annual reduction = Rs.25,000 x 12 = Rs.3,00,000
Savings in electricty bill is Rs.6,60,000 and Investment is Rs.5,00,000
Hence payback period = 5,00,000/6,60,000 = 0.78 years or 9 months
Reduction in the distribution loss % in kWh when
tail end power factor is raised from PF1 to a new
power factor PF2, will be proportional to
 Problem 5
A process plant consumes of 125,000
kWh per month at 0.9 Power Factor (PF).
What is the percentage reduction in
distribution losses per month if PF is
improved up to 0.96 at load end?
 Solution
% Reduction in distribution losses

= [1- (0.9/0.96)2]
= 0.121
= 12.1 %
 Problem 6
• An engineering industry which was
operating with a maximum demand of
1000 kVA at 0.9 power factor brought
down its demand to 900 kVA by power
factor improvement. Find out the
percentage reduction in distribution losses
within the plant
 Solution
kW drawn = 1000 kVA x 0.9 = 900 kW

New power factor = 900/900 = 1.0

Distribution loss reduction = 1 – {PF1/PF2}2 x 100

= 1 - {0.9/1}2 x 100
= 19 %
Transformers
 Basics of Transformers
 A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver
it at another voltage. This permits electrical energy to be
generated at relatively low voltages and transmitted at high
voltages and low currents, thus reducing line losses and
voltage drop
 Transformers consist of two coils that are electrically
insulated, but magnetically linked. The primary coil is
connected to the power source and the secondary coil
connects to the load.
 Out of all the electrical machines the transformer operates
at highest possible efficiency as the electrical energy is
transfer take place without the use of moving parts.
 Turn’s ratio = Number of turns on the secondary
Number of turns on the primary
 Voltage regulation of a
transformer
 It is the change in secondary terminal voltage ,
expressed as a percentage of the secondary
rated voltage when load at a given power factor
is reduced to zero with primary applied voltage
held constant.
= secondary terminal voltage at no load - secondary terminal voltage at any load
secondary rated voltage
 Rating of Transformer
 Rating of the transformer is calculated
based on the connected load and applying
the diversity factor on the connected load
applicable to the particular industry.
 Location of Transformer
 Transformers should be placed close to the
load centre, considering other features like
optimization needs for centralized control,
operational flexibility etc. This will reduce the
distribution loss in cables.
Parallel Operation of Transformers

 Both transformers which are operating in parallel

should be technically identical in all aspects and
should have the same impedance level. This will
minimize the circulating current between
transformers.
 Where the load is fluctuating in nature parallel
operation is recommended so that the load can
be optimized by sharing the load between
transformers so that they are operated close to
the maximum efficiency.
 Types of Transformers
 Power transformers are used in transmission
network of higher voltages, deployed for
step-up and step down transformer
application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV,
33kV)
 Distribution transformers are used for lower
voltage distribution networks as a means to
end user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV,3.3 kV,
440V, 230V)
 Transformer losses

No-load loss Load loss

( core loss) (copper loss)

Eddy current loss Hysteresis loss

 No-load loss (core loss)
 No-load loss (also called core loss) occurs whenever
the transformer is energized & does not vary with load.
 Eddy current loss - is due to induced circulating
currents in the core. It depends on the voltage applied
but is independent of the frequency.
 Hysteresis loss - is the energy lost due to reversing
magnetic field in the core as the magnetizing current
varies and reverses direction. It depends both on the
voltage applied and its frequency.
 Hysterisis losses reduced by
 Utilizing low- loss grade of silicon steel laminations.
 Increase in the core length so that reduction of flux
density is achieved.
 Eddy current losses are reduced by using thinner
laminations
 Load loss (copper loss)
 Varies with the square of the load current
and is power lost in ohmic resistance of
primary & secondary
 Energy Efficient Transformers
 Energy efficient transformers use amorphous material
(a metallic glass alloy ) for the core instead of
conventional silicon alloyed iron core (Si Fe core).
 Reduction in energy loss of amorphous core
transformer over conventional Si Fe core.
transformers is around 70% and they have increased
efficiencies even at low loads (98.5% efficiency at
35% load).
 Energy efficient transformers are a little costlier than
conventional Si Fe core transformers, but the overall
benefit towards energy savings will compensate for
the higher initial investment.
 At present amorphous metal core transformers are
available up to 1000 kVA.
 Total transformer loss

P (Total) = P (no load) + [ % Load ] 2 x P (Full load)

100
 Example

Calculate the transformer total losses for an

average loading of 60%. Assume no load and
full load losses as 3 kW and 25 kW respectively.
 Solution :

P (Total) = P (no load) + [ % Load ] 2 x P (Full load)

100
= 3 + (0.6)2 x 25
= 12 kW
Example : A plant has 2 identical 500 kVA transformers, each with a no
load loss of 0.84 kW and full load copper loss of 5.7 kW. The plant average
load is 300 kVA and has never exceeded 450 kVA in the past.
Compare the transformer losses when single transformer is in operation
and when both transformers are in parallel operation.
Ans : When 2 transformers are in operation
• Operating loss per transformer
= 0.84+ (150/500)2 x 5.7 =2.55 kW
• Operating loss for both the transformers
=2.55 x 2 = 5.1 kW
• When 1 transformers is in operation
• Operating loss per transformer
= 0.84+ (300/500)2 x 5.7 =2.892 kW
• Savings in transformer losses when 1 transformer
is in operation
• = 5.1 - 2.892 = 2.208 kW
Example : Determine the simple payback period of the
incremental investment for two transformers with the following
details:

Option A Option B
Capacity( Out put ) 500 kVA 500 kVA
Efficiency at rated capacity 98% 98.5%
Capital cost Rs. 3.15 lakhs Rs. 4.05 lakhs

Assume the following for both the transformers

Operating PF at rated capacity = 0.9
No load losses = same
Energy charge = Rs. 4.50/kWh
The transformers are used at rated capacity for 10
hours/day and 250 days/year of operation
 500 kVA • 0.9
kW drawn case A = = 459 .184
0.98
500 kVA •0.9
kW drawn case B = =456 .853
0.985
Reduction in kW by buying transformer B instead of
A is = 459.184 – 456.853 = 2.331 kW

Annual cost savings are = 10 x 250 x 2.331 x 4.50

= Rs 26,224
Simply payback period is = (405,000 – 315,000)/26,224
= 3.43 years
 Voltage Control
• The voltage control in transformers is done by altering the
voltage transformation ratio with the help of tapping. Tap
changer is a device which is used to vary the voltage
transformation ratio.

• Tap changers are of two type –

• Off-circuit tap changer - The Voltage levels can be varied only
after isolating the primary voltage of the transformer.
• On load tap changer (OLTC)-The voltage levels can be varied
without isolating the connected load.

• To minimize the magnetization losses and to reduce the

nuisance tripping of the plant, the main transformer (the
transformer that receives supply from the grid) should be
provided with OLTC and the down stream distribution
transformers can be provided with off-circuit tap changer.
 System Distribution Losses
• System Distribution Losses can be reduced by
1. Optimum loading of transformers in the system
2. Relocating transformers and sub-stations near to load
centers.
3. Re-routing and re-conductoring feeders and lines where
the losses / voltage drops are higher.
4. Opting for lower resistance All Aluminum Alloy
Conductors (AAAC) in place of conventional Aluminum
Cored Steel Reinforced (ACSR) lines
5. Pf improvement by capacitors at load end.