Water Treatment

School of Civil and

Monroe L. Weber-Shirk Environmental Engineering
 Reflections

 What are the two broad tasks of

environmental engineers?
 What is the connection between the broad
tasks of environmental engineers and
building a water treatment plant?
 Why may the water need to be
changed/treated?
 Simple Sorting

 Goal: clean water

 Source: (contaminated) surface water
 Solution: separate contaminants from water
 How?
 Where are we going?

 Unit processes* designed to

 remove ___________
particles
 remove __________ ___________
dissolved chemicals
 inactivate __________
pathogens
 *Unit process: a process that is used in similar ways in
many different applications
 sedimentation
 filtration
 ...
 Unit Processes Designed to
Remove Particulate Matter
 Screening
 Sedimentation
 Coagulation/flocculation
 Filtration
slow sand filters
rapid sand filters
diatomaceous earth filters
membrane filters
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
 Screening

 Removes large solids

 logs
 branches
 rags
 fish
 Simple process
 may incorporate a mechanized trash
removal system
 Protects pumps and pipes in WTP
 Sedimentation

 the oldest form of water treatment

 uses gravity to separate particles from water
 often follows coagulation and flocculation
 occurs in NYC’s __________
reservoirs
 Sedimentation: Effect of the
particle concentration
 Dilute suspensions
Particles act independently
 Concentrated suspensions
Particle-particle interactions are significant
Particles may collide and stick together
(form flocs)
Particle flocs may settle more quickly
Particle-particle forces may prevent further
consolidation
 How fast do particles fall in
dilute suspensions?
 What are the important
parameters?
Initial conditions
After falling for some time...
 What are the important
forces?
_________
Gravity
Fluid drag
__________
 Sedimentation:
Particle Terminal Fall Velocity
∀ p = particle volume
∑ F = ma
Identify forces projected
Fb Ap = particle cross sectional area
Fd + Fb − W = 0
Fd ρ p = particle density

∀pρ p g ρw = water density

W = _______
g = acceleration due to gravity
C D = drag coefficient
Fb ="________
pr wg
Vt = particle terminal velocity

Vt 2 W
Fd = C D AP ρ w
2
 Particle Terminal Fall Velocity
(continued)
Fd = W − Fb Force balance (zero acceleration)
Vt 2
C D AP ρ w = ∀ p (ρ p − ρw )g
2
2∀ p ( ρ p − ρ w ) g
Vt 2 = We haven’t yet assumed a shape
C D AP ρ w
∀p 2 4 sphere
Assume a _______
= d ∀ p = πr 3 Ap = πr 2
Ap 3 3
4 gd ( ρ p − ρ w ) 4 gd ( r p - r w )
Vt =
2
Vt =
3 CD ρw 3 CD rw
 Drag Coefficient on a Sphere

1000 Stokes Law

Drag Coefficient

100

10

0.1

00
0
00
0
00
0
1

10
1

00
00
10
0.

00
00
10

00
10
Vt d ρ

00
10

10

10
Reynolds Number Re =
µ

turbulent
laminar turbulent boundary
 Drag Coefficient: Re =
Vt d ρ
µ
Equations
4 gd ( ρ p − ρ w )
General Equation Vt =
3 CD ρw

24 d 2 g( ρ p − ρw )
CD = Vt =
Laminar flow Re < 1 Re 18µ

Transitional flow 1 < Re < 104 Use the graph

gd ( ρ p − ρ w )
Fully turbulent flow Re > 10 4 CD = 0.4 Vt ≈
0.3 ρw
Example Calculation of Terminal
Velocity
Determine the terminal settling velocity of a
cryptosporidium oocyst having a diameter of 4 µ m
and a density of 1.04 g/cm3 in water at 15°C
[µ =1.14x10-3 kg/(s•m)]. ρw =999 kg/m3
g =9.81 m/s 2
Work in your teams.
Use mks units (meters, kilograms, seconds).
Convert your answer to some reasonable set of units
that you understand.

Solutio Reynolds
 Floc Density and Velocity
(Approximate)
36 - 100 m/day
Water inlet
Based on experimental data for
Alum-clay flocs
0.1 1000

floc terminal velocity (m/day)

floc density

 ρ floc − ρ w  floc density

  0.01 Vt (m/day) 100
 ρ w 

0.001 10
0.1 1 10
0.4 mm
floc diameter (mm)
ρ floc =______
1030 kg/m3
 Sedimentation Basin:
Critical Path
Horizontal velocity
Vh

Outlet
Q Q = flow rate H

zone
Vt

zone
Vh =

Inlet
Sludge zone
AA = WH
Vertical velocity
d 2 g( ρ p − ρw )
L
Sludge out
Vt =
18µ (property of the particle)

Vc = terminal velocity that just barely gets captured (property of the tank)
 Sedimentation Basin:
Importance of Tank Surface Area
θ = residence time
∀
θ= Time in tank ∀ = WHL = volume of tank
Q
A s = top surface area of tank
W
H HQ Q Q Vh H
Vc = = = =
q " LW As
Vc

L
Want a _____
small Vc, ______
large As, _______ large θ .
small H, _______
Suppose water were flowing up through a sedimentation tank. What Q
would be the velocity of a particle that is just barely removed? Vc = A
s
 Conventional Sedimentation Basin

 long rectangular What is Vc for this sedimentation tank?

basins Settling zone

Outlet
zone
 4-6 hour

zone
Inlet
retention time Sludge zone

 3-4 m deep
 max of 12 m Sludge out
wide
 max of 48 m
long H 3 m 24 hr
Vc = = = 18 m / day
θ 4 hr day
We can’t do this in our laboratory scale
 Settling zone
Design Criteria for

Outlet
zone
zone
Inlet
Sedimentation Tanks Sludge zone

 _______________________________
Minimal turbulence (inlet baffles)
 _______________________________
Uniform velocity (small dimensions normal to velocity)
 _______________________________
No scour of settled particles
 _______________________________
Slow moving particle collection system
 _______________________________
Q/As must be small (to capture small particles)

This will be one of the ways you can improve the

performance of your water treatment plant.
 Lamella

 Sedimentation tanks are

commonly divided into
layers of shallow tanks
(lamella)
 The flow rate can be
increased while still
obtaining excellent
particle removal

Lamella decrease distance particle

has to fall in order to be removed
 Lamella

Design needs improvement! Need method to transport

particles to bottom of tank.
 Lamella Closeup
Q Qlamella
Vc = vc =
As wL cos α + wb sin α
w = width of lamella
Vlamella
vc =
L
L cos α + sin α
b b
 Region of particle-free fluid above the
suspension
 Suspension
 Thin particle-free fluid layer beneath the
downward-facing surface
α  Concentrated sediment
 Lamella Design Strategy

Q
 Angle is approximately 60° to get Qlamella =
N lamella
solids to slide down the incline
Ltan k − L cos ( α )
 Re must be less than 2000 N lamella =
b sin ( α )
 Shear doesn’t causing resuspension
if flow is laminar Vlamella b
Re =
 Lamella spacing must be large ν
relative to floc size (flocs can be
several mm in diameter)
 Upflow velocity (Q/As) can be as
large as 100 m/day
 Sedimentation of Small
Particles?
 How could we increase the sedimentation
rate of small particles? Increase d (stick
particles together)

d g ( ρ p − ρ w ) Increase density difference

2 Increase g (centrifuge)

Vt =
18µ (dissolved air flotation)

Decrease viscosity
(increase temperature)
 Particle/particle interactions

 Electrostatic repulsion
 In most surface waters, colloidal surfaces are
negatively charged
stable suspension
 like charges repel __________________
 van der Waals force
 an attractive force
 decays more rapidly with distance than the electrostatic
force
 is a stronger force at very close distances
Electrostatic
Energy Barrier
 Increase kinetic energy of
Layer of
particles
counter ions
increase temperature
stir
+++ +++
+ + + +
+++ +++
+ +
 Decrease magnitude of energy
barrier
change the charge of the particles
van der introduce positively charged
Waals particles
 Coagulation

 Coagulation is a physical-chemical process

whereby particles are destabilized
 Several mechanisms
adsorption of cations onto negatively charged
particles
decrease the thickness of the layer of counter
ions
sweep coagulation
interparticle bridging
 Coagulation Chemistry

 The standard coagulant for water supply is

Alum [Al2(SO4)3*14.3H2O]
 Typically 5 mg/L to 50 mg/L alum is used
 The chemistry is complex with many possible
species formed such as AlOH+2 , Al(OH)2+, and
Al7(OH)17 +4
The primary reaction produces Al(OH)3
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O→2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO4-2
pH = -log[H+]
 Coagulation Chemistry

 Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] forms

amorphous, gelatinous flocs that are heavier
than water
 The flocs look like snow in water
 These flocs entrap particles as the flocs
settle (sweep coagulation)
 Coagulant introduction with
rapid mixing
 The coagulant must be mixed with the water
 Retention times in the mixing zone are typically
between 1 and 10 seconds
 Types of rapid mix units
 pumps
 hydraulic jumps
 flow-through basins with many baffles
 In-line blenders
 In-line static mixers
 Flocculation

 Coagulation has destabilized the particles

by reducing the energy barrier
 Now we want to get the particles to collide
 We need relative motion between particles
________ ________ (effective for particles
Brownian motion
smaller than 1 µ m)
_________
Differential _____________
sedimentation (big particles hit
smaller particles)
_______
Shear
 Mechanical Flocculation

 Shear provided by turbulence

created by gentle stirring
 Turbulence also keeps large flocs
from settling so they can grow
even larger!
 Retention time of 10 - 30 minutes
 Advantage is that amount of
shear can be varied independent
of flow rate
 Disadvantage is the tanks are far
from plug flow
 Hydraulic Flocculators

 Types
Horizontal baffle
Vertical baffle
Pipe flow
 Questions for design
How long must the suspension be in the “reactor”
How should the geometry of the reactor be
determined?
 Velocity Gradient Flocculation
With fixed frame of reference

With red particle as frame of reference

 Increase Velocity Gradient

du
G=
dy

Velocity gradient!
How much water is cleared of particles
from stationary particle’s perspective?
 Volume cleared is proportional to projected area
of stationary particle ∝d 2
 Volume cleared is proportional to time ∝t
∝G
 Volume cleared is proportional to the velocity
gradient
 The velocity of the water flowing past the
particle increases with the diameter of the
particle
∝d
∀ cleared ∝d Gt 3
 How much volume must be cleared
before a collision occurs?
 What is the average volume of water
occupied by a particle?
 Given C mg/L of particles in suspension…
 Need to know particle diameter (d)
 And density (ρ particles)
 How many particles are in a volume of
water? N = C particles  number
π 3 
 volume

ρ particles g d
6
 Volume occupied by a particle

π 3
ρ particles ⋅ d
∀occupied = 6 ∀cleared ∝ d 3Gt
C particles

Set volume occupied by a particle equal to volume cleared

π 3
ρ particles ⋅ d ρ particles
6 ∝ d 3Gt tcollision ∝
C particles G ⋅ C particles
 ρ particles
tcollision ∝
Collision Time G ⋅C particles

 A measure of how long the particles must

be in the velocity gradient to double in size
 A series of collisions must occur for
particles to grow large enough to be easily
removed by sedimentation
 Flocculation Reactor Design

ρ particles
 Critical design is when particle concentration is
low tcollision ∝
G ⋅C particles
 Higher velocity gradients would decrease the
characteristic collision time
 Why not design a tiny reactor with huge
velocity gradients?
 SHEAR
 du
Shear τ =µ
dy

 The tangential force experienced by a fluid

in a velocity gradient is proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid
τ = µG

Fluid Velocity
Shear
viscosity gradient
 N  N ⋅ s  1
 m 2   m 2   s 
 du
Too much shear? τ =µ
dy

 Flocs can be broken by too much shear

 Amazingly, we haven’t been able to find good
information on the shear level that causes
aluminum-clay flocs to breakup
 fine grained cohesive sediments within estuarine
waters were shown to produce smaller flocs when
the shear exceeded 0.35 Pa (equivalent to a G of
approximately 400/s)
 ρ particles
tcollision ∝
Reaction time? G ⋅C particles

 Low particle concentrations require longer

flocculation
 Goal is to get flocculation to work when
turbidity is as low as 10 NTU (equivalent to
approximately 20 mg/L of kaolin clay)
 g
 2650 
∝  L
tcollision 331 seconds
 1  g
 400  ⋅  0.020 
 s  L
 Reaction time is more complex

 Aluminum hydroxide polymers significantly

increase the number of particles and the
probability of collision (and hence decrease tcollision)
 So for now we have to go with some empirical
guidelines
 Gθ should be at least 20,000 where θ is the
hydraulic residence time in the flocculation reactor

∀ Reactor volume
θ=
Q Flow rate
 Laminar Flow Pipe Flocculation: 32Q
G =
for tiny flows! max
πd3

 The max value for G is approximately 64Q

G=
50/s 3π d 3
 These equations assume laminar flow 64Q
d=3
 Laminar flow requires that the 3π G
Reynolds number be less than 2000Vd ρ Qρ
4
Re = =
µ π µD
 See if you can figure out equations for
the length of the pipe Gmax = 1.5G
 Given Gθ , Q and d, Find Floc Tube
Length

64Q
G= True for laminar flow
3π d 3
πd2
L
∀ 4 π d 2L
θ= = =
Q Q 4Q

π d 2 L 64Q 16 L
Gθ = ⋅ =
4Q 3π d 3
3d

3dGθ
L=
16
 Laminar Pipe Flow

displacement

r r
Velocity
velocity gradient
 Coagulation/Flocculation

 Inject Coagulant in rapid mixer

 Water flows from rapid mix unit into
flocculation reactor
 Water flows from flocculation reactor into
sedimentation tank
make sure flocs don’t break!
flocs settle and are removed
 Jar Test

 Mimics the rapid mix, flocculation,

sedimentation treatment steps in a beaker
 Allows operator to test the effect of
different coagulant dosages or of different
coagulants
 Low tech water bottle test
 Unit Processes in Conventional
Surface Water Treatment
 We’ve covered
Sedimentation
Coagulation/flocculation
 Coming up!
Filtration
Disinfection
Removal of Dissolved Substances
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
 Filtration

 Slow sand filters

 Diatomaceous earth filters
 Membrane filters
 Rapid sand filters (Conventional Treatment)
 Slow Sand Filtration

 First filters to be used on a widespread basis

 Fine sand with an effective size of 0.2 mm
 Low flow rates (10 - 40 cm/hr)
 Schmutzdecke (_____ ____) forms on top
filter cake
of the filter
causes high head loss
must be removed periodically
 Used without coagulation/flocculation!
 Diatomaceous Earth Filters

 Diatomaceous earth (DE) is made of the silica

skeletons of diatoms
 DE is added to water and then fed to a special
microscreen
 The DE already on the microscreen strains particles
and DE from the water
 The continuous DE feed prevents the gradually
thickening DE cake from developing excessive head
loss
 Was seriously considered for Croton Filtration Plant
 Membrane Filters

 Much like the membrane filters used to

enumerate coliforms
much greater surface area
 Produce very high quality water (excellent
particle removal)
 Clog rapidly if the influent water is not of
sufficiently high quality
 More expensive than sand and DE filters
 Rapid Sand Filter
(Conventional US Treatment)

Size Specific Depth

(mm) Gravity (cm)
0.70 1.6 30
Anthracite
Influent Sand 0.45 - 0.55 2.65 45

Gravel 5 - 60 2.65 45
Drain
Effluent Wash water
Particle Removal Mechanisms in
Filters

Transport
Molecular diffusion
Inertia
Gravity
Interception
Attachment
Straining
Surface forces
 Filter Design

 Filter media
 silica sand and anthracite coal
 non-uniform media will stratify with _______ particles at the top
smaller
 Flow rates
 2.5 - 10 m/hr
 Backwash rates
 set to obtain a bed porosity of 0.65 to 0.70
 typically 50 m/hr
 Backwash

 Wash water
is treated
water!
Anthracite
 WHY?
Only clean water
should ever be on
Influent Sand
bottom of filter!

Gravel
Drain
Effluent Wash water
 Ways to Improve Filtration

 Filter to waste
 Extended Terminal Sub-fluidization Wash
 Alum feed directly to filter?
 Potato starch?
 Disinfection

 Disinfection: operations aimed at killing or

inactivating pathogenic microorganisms
____________
 Ideal disinfectant
Toxic to pathogens
_______________
Not toxic to humans
_______________
Fast rate of kill
_______________
Residual protection
_______________
Economical
_______________
 Disinfection Options

 Chlorine
 chlorine gas Poisonous gas – risk of a leak
 sodium hypochlorite (bleach)
 Ozone
 Irradiation with Ultraviolet light
 Sonification
 Electric Current
 Gamma-ray irradiation
 Chlorine

 First large-scale chlorination was in 1908 at the

Boonton Reservoir of the Jersey City Water
Works in the United States
Chlorine
 Widely used in the US oxidizes organic
 Typical dosage (1-5 mg/L) matter
 variable, based on the chlorine demand
 goal of 0.2 mg/L residual
 Trihalomethanes (EPA primary standard is 0.08
mg/L) Pathogen/carcinogen tradeoff
 Chlorine Reactions
Charges 0 +1 -2 +1 -1
Cl2 + H2O → H+ + HOCl + Cl-
Hypochlorous acid HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl- Hypochlorite ion
 The sum of HOCl and OCl- is called the
free chlorine
____ residual
______ _______
 HOCl is the more effective disinfectant
 Therefore chlorine disinfection is more
effective at ________
low pH
 HOCl and OCl- are in equilibrium at pH 7.5
 EPA Pathogen Inactivation
Requirements
Safe Drinking Water Act
 SDWA requires 99.9% inactivation for
Giardia and 99.99% inactivation of viruses
 Giardia is more difficult to kill with
chlorine than viruses and thus Giardia
inactivation determines the CT
Concentration x Time
Enumerating Giardia is difficult, time-consuming and costly.
How would you ensure that water treatment plants meet this
criteria?
Where are Giardia removed/inactivated?
 EPA Credits for Giardia
Inactivation
Treatment type Credit
Conventional Filtration 99.7%
Direct Filtration* 99%
Disinfection f(time, conc., pH, Temp.)

* No sedimentation tanks
 Disinfection CT Credits

To get credit for 99.9% inactivation of Giardia:

Contact time (min)
chlorine pH 6.5 pH 7.5
(mg/L) 2°C 10°C 2°C 10°C
0.5 300 178 430 254
1 159 94 228 134
Inactivation is a function of _______,
time ____________
concentration
pH
______, temperature
and ___________.
 NYC
CT?
Kensico
Delaware Pipeline
21.75 km long
5.94 m diameter
peak hourly flow
= 33 m3/s
volume =603,000 m3
5 hour residence time!
Hillview
3.4 x 106 m3
 NYC CT Problem

 Hillview Reservoir is an open reservoir

 Should the chlorine contact time prior to arrival at
Hillview count?

Giardia contamination from Upstate

Reservoirs will be decreased, but
recontamination at Hillview is
possible
 Ozone

 Widely used in Europe

 O3 is chemically unstable
 Must be produced on site
 More expensive than chlorine (2 - 3 times)
 Typical dosages range from 1 to 5 mg/L
 Often followed by chlorination so that the
residual
chlorine can provide a protective _______
 Removal of Dissolved
Substances (1)
 Aeration (before filtration)
oxidizes iron or manganese in groundwater
oxidized forms are less soluble and thus
precipitate out of solution
removes hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
 Softening (before filtration)
used to remove Ca+2 and Mg+2
usually not necessary with surface waters
 Removal of Dissolved
Substances (2)
 Activated Carbon (between filtration and disinfection)
 extremely adsorbent
 used to remove organic contaminants
 spent activated carbon can be regenerated with superheated
steam
 Reverse Osmosis
 semi-permeable membrane allows water molecules to pass, but
not the larger ions and molecules
 primarily used for desalination
 also removes organic materials, bacteria, viruses, and protozoa
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
Summary
 Cryptosporidium Oocyst

d 2 g( ρ p − ρw )
Vt =
ρ p = 1040 kg/m 3 18µ

ρw = 999 kg/m 3
Vt =
( 4x10 −6
m ) ( 9.81 m/s 2 )(1040 kg/m 3 − 999 kg/m 3 )
2

 −3 kg 

181.14x10 
g = 9.81 m/s 2  s⋅m


d = 4x10 −6 m
Vt = 3.14 x10 −7 m/s
Vt = 2.7 cm/day
 Reynolds Number Check
Vd ρ
Re =
µ

Re =
( 3.14 x10 −7
m/s ) ( 4 x10 −6
m ) ( 999kg/m 3
)
−3 kg
1.14x10
s⋅m

Re = 1.1 x 10-6

Re<<1 and therefore in Stokes Law range

Diatomaceous Earth

Clay

DE
 Q
Qlamella = = vlamella wb
N lamella
Ltan k − L cos ( α )
N lamella =
b sin ( α )

L  vc  cos α + sin α  =
L Qb sin ( α )
vlamella = vc  cos α + sin α 
b  b  wbLtan k − wbL cos ( α )

L cos α
b=
Q sin ( α )
− sin α
Qlamella vc ( wLtan k − wL cos ( α ) )
vc =
wL cos α + wb sin α Q sin ( α )
vc =
L 
Q 1 ( wLtan k − wL cos ( α ) )  cos α + sin α 
vc = b 
wbN lamella L cos α + sin α
b