MICROELECTRONIC

DMA 3223
oleh

MOHD ROZAINI BIN MD NAFIAH

Email : rozaini5135@yahoo.com
Tel : 013-2095340

Unit Kurikulum,
Bahagian Kemahiran MARA
 DMA 3223 MICROELECTRONIC

What is the meaning of Microelectronic?

What are the advantages of Microelectronic in
automotive application?
Do you know how ABS, VVTi operates?
Front / Rear Distribution Right / Left Distribution
 Fuel Cut Control System

A fuel cut control is used to stop the fuel pump once when
any of the SRS airbags is deployed. In this system, the
airbag deployment signal from the airbag sensor assembly
is detected by the engine ECU, and it turns OFF the circuit
opening relay. After the fuel cut control has been activated,
turning the ignition switch from OFF to ON cancels the fuel
cut control, and the engine can be restarted.
 Multiplex Communication

Each ECU’s can share their information through CAN BUS wire to reduce wiring
 Assessment Scheme
 Theory Test 1 10%
 Practical test 1 10%
 Theory Test 2 10 %
 Practical test 2 10% CARRY MARKS 60%
 Assignment (p1) 10%
 Assigment (p2) 10%
 Final Exam 40 %
 Topic
1. Introduction to Basic Electronic and Microcomputer System
i-Diode, Zener Diode and LED
ii-Transistor
iii-Capacitor
iv-Thermistor
v-Photoconductive Cell
vi-Logic Gate

2. An introduction of Microcomputer
i-Basic layout of microcomputer
ii-Central Processing Unit CPU
iii-Temporary Storage Unit
iv-Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
v-Input and Output Interface
3. Programming and Computer Language
i-Digital principal
ii-Consept of Binary
iii-Bit and Bytes
iv-Random Access Memory RAM
v-Read Only Memory ROM
vi-Data Buses
vii-Adress Buses
viii-Control Buses

4. Microelectronic System
i-Programming
ii-Measurement
iii-Sensors and Actuator
iv-New developments in Microelectronic
v-Diagnostic-Electronics, Sensors and Actuators
Electronic in Automotive
1.Diode
What is covered in this chapter:
1. Semiconductor principles
2. Diodes;Junction, Zener
3. Other two-lead devices: LED, LDR,photodiode,
thermistor
 Semiconductor Principles
 A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical
resistance value lower than insulator and higher than a
conductor
 Semiconductor materials such as Silicon and Germanium,
have an atomic structure which behaves differently from
material that are good conductors
 Electrical current was produced by the random drift of free
electrons.
 In insulator, and partly in semiconductor, electron drift is
limited because there are relatively free electron available
that are not tightly bounded to their atomic home
 Cont..
 Intrinsic Semiconductor- semiconductors in their purest
form
 Extrinsic Semiconductor-semiconductors with other atoms
mixed in. These other atoms are called impurity atoms.
The process of adding impurity atoms is called doping.
The doping alters the characteristics of the semiconductor,
mainly its conductivity.
 At room temperature (about 25 C), an intrinsic
semiconductor acts more like an insulator than a
conductor.
 The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is greater
than that of an intrinsic semiconductor.
 The level of conductivity is dependent mainly of the
number of impurity atoms that have been added during the
doping process.
 Atomic Theory
 The atom has been shown to contain three
basic particles: the protons and neutrons that
make up the nucleus (core) of the atom and
electrons that orbit about the nucleus. The
basic model of the atom, called the Bohr
model
Cont..
The orbital paths, or shell, are identified using
the later K through Q. The innermost shell is
the K shell, followed by the L shell, and so on.
The outermost shell for a given atom is called
the valence shell. The valence shell of an atom
is critical because it determines the conductivity
of the atom.
K shell = 2 x 12 = 2 electrons
L shell = 2 x 22 = 8 electrons
M shell = 2 x 32 = 18 electrons
Valence Electron
The valence shell of an atom can contain
up to eight electrons. The conductivity of
the atoms depends on the number of
electrons that are in the valence shell.
When an atom has one valence
electrons, it is a nearly perfect conductor.
When an atom has eight valence
electrons, the valence shell is said to be
complete, and the atom is an insulator.
Therefore, conductivity decreases with
an increase in the number of valence
electrons.
Cont..

Semiconductors are atoms that contain four

valence electrons.
Because the number of valence electrons in
a semiconductor is halfway between one (for
and conductor) and eight (for an insulator),
a semiconductor atom is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator.
Three of the most commonly used
semiconductor materials are Silicon(Si),
Germanium (Ge) and Carbon (C)
Semiconductor atoms
 Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the method by which
atoms complete their valence shells by ‘sharing
valence electrons with other atoms’
Cont..
A silicon atom with its four valence electrons produces the
covalent bonds that hold the atoms together, because
each shared electron is attracted equally by the two
adjacent atoms which share it.
The results of this bonding are as follows:
 The atoms are held together, forming a solid substance.
 The atoms are all electrically stable because their valence
shells are complete.
 The complete valence shells course the silicon to act as
an insulator. Thus, pure (intrinsic) silicon is a very poor
conductor. The same principle holds true for intrinsic
germanium.
 ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT
When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon,
the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction
band, which are free to move randomly in the crystal
structure, are now easily attracted toward the positive end.
This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a
semiconductor material and is called electron current.
Cont….
Another type of current occurs at the valence level,
where the holes created by the free electron exist.
Electrons remaining in the valence band are still
attached to their atoms and are not free to move
randomly in the crystal structure as are the free
electrons.
However, a valence electron can move into a nearby
hole, with little change in its energy level, thus
leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively
the hole has moved from one place to another in the
crystal structure. This is called hole current.
Hole current in silicon
 DOPING
Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms
to intrinsic silicon or germanium to improve the
conductivity of the semiconductor. Since a doped
semiconductor is no longer pure, it is called an
extrinsic semiconductor.
Two element types are used for doping, trivalent
and pentavalent. A trivalent element is one that
has three valence electrons. Example Aluminum,
Indium and Boron.
A pentavalent element is one that has five
valence electrons. Example Phosphorus, Arsenic
and Antimony.
Cont…

When pentavalent impurities are used, the

resulting material is called an n-type material.
Since the pentavalent atoms in the n material
are giving up electrons, they are often referred
to as donor atoms.
When trivalent atoms are added to intrinsic
semiconductors, the resulting material is called
a p-type material.
The trivalent atoms, on the other hand, are
accepting electrons from the pentavalent atoms
and thus are referred to as acceptor atoms.
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
To increase the number of conduction band
electrons in pure silicon, pentavalent impurity
atoms are added.
These are atoms with five valence electrons,
such as Arsenic, Phosphorus and Antimony.
This extra electron becomes a conduction
electron because it is not attached to any atom.
The number of conduction electrons can be
controlled by the amount of impurity added to
the silicon.
Pentavalent impurity atoms in a silicon crystal
 MAJORITY AND MINORITY
CARRIERS
 Since most of the current carriers are electrons,
silicon (or germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms
is an n-type semiconductor material (the n stands for
the negative charge on an electron).
 The electrons are called the majority carriers in
n-type material. Although the majority of current
carriers in n-type material are electrons, there are
also a few holes that are created when electron-hole
pairs are thermally generated.
 These holes are not produced by the addition of the
pentavalent impurity atoms. Holes in an n-type
material are called minority carriers.
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 To increase the number of holes in pure silicon,
trivalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms
with three valence electron such Aluminum, Boron and
Gallium.
 As illustrated in Figure, each trivalent atom (Boron, in
this case) forms covalent bonds with four adjacent
silicon atoms.
 All three of the Boron atom’s valence electron is used
in the covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are
required, a hole is formed with each trivalent atom. The
number of holes can be controlled by the amount of
trivalent impurity added to the silicon.
Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal. A Boron
(A) impurity atom is shown in the center
 MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS
 Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or
germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor material.
 Holes can be thought of as positive charges because the
absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on
the atom. The holes are the majority carriers in p-type
material.
 Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material
are holes, there are also a few free electrons that are
created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated.
 These free electrons are not produced by the addition of
the trivalent impurity atoms. Electrons in p-type material
are the minority carriers.
PN JUNCTIONS

Basic PN structure in a diode at the instant of junction formation

When a piece of silicon is doped so that half is n-type and the other
half is p-type, a PN junction is formed between the two regions.
A device formed in this way is known as a semiconductor diode. The N region
has many conduction electrons, and the P region has many holes
THE DEPLETION LAYER

A PN junction becomes useful when we are able to

control the width of the depletion layer. By controlling
the width of the depletion layer, we are able to control
the resistance of the PN junction and thus the amount
of current that can pass through the device.
FORWARD-BIASED
External voltage pulls majority current carriers away from the
pn junction.
DIODE
 The diode is a single pn junction device
with conductive contacts and wire leads
connected to each region, as shown in.
One half of the diode is an n-type
semiconductor and the other half is a p-
type semiconductor
 The n region is called the cathode and
the p region is called the anode. The
"arrow" in the symbol points in the
direction of conventional current
(opposite the electron flow).
Diodes
Diode analogy
 DIODE APPLICATIONS
 Basically, a diode functions in the same way as a polarity-operated
switch. When forward–biased, it presents a relatively low resistance
and acts like a closed switch. While, reverse-biased it presents a
high resistance and acts like an open switch
 The following list summarizes the main uses for diodes:
 i. Power-supply rectifier
 This function is converting ac input from the 60-Hz power line to dc
output. One diode is used for a half-wave rectifier. The full-wave
rectifier needs two diodes.
 ii. Signal detector
 The detector circuit uses a diode to rectify a modulated signal in
order to recover the modulating signal.
 iii. Digital logic gate
 In these circuits, the diode functions as a switch. It is on when the
diode conducts and off without conduction.
Diode: Rectifier Bridge
DIODE IDENTIFICATION AND RATING
 It is important to identify correctly
the anode and cathode lead ends
of the diode for proper connection
into circuits.
 Some diodes have the diode
symbol printed on the case.
Cylinder-shaped diodes use a dark
band for lead identification.
 The lead end nearest to the band is
the cathode and the lead on the
opposite end is the anode
 Diodes are rated for the maximum
current they can safely conduct in
the forward-bias direction.
Exceeding this current rating will
cause the diode to overheat and
can permanently damage it
FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS OF THE DIODE
 A diode is forward-biased when
the positive terminal of the
voltage source is connected to
the anode. The negative
terminal of the source is
connected to the cathode
 The forward current, (IF), is from
anode to cathode as indicated.
The forward voltage drop (VF)
due to the barrier potential is
from positive at the anode to
negative at the cathode
 A diode is reverse biased
when a negative terminal is
connected to the anode, and
the positive terminal is
connected to the cathode.
 The current is zero
(neglecting the small reverse
current).
CURRENT VOLTAGE (I-V) CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE OF A PN JUNCTION
THE IDEAL DIODE
 The ideal diode has the
characteristic of an open
switch when it is reverse
biased and those of a
closed switch when
forward biased.
When reverse diode (open switch)
 The diode will have infinite resistance.
 The diode will not pass current.
 The diode will drop the entire applied voltage across
its terminals

When forward biased (closed switch)

 The diode will have no resistance.
 The diode will have no control over the current
through it.
 The diode will have no voltage drop across its
terminals.
TYPE OF DIODES
ZENER DIODES
 A zener diode is a special diode that has been
optimized for operation in the breakdown region.
These devices are unlike ordinary diode, which
are intended never to be operated at or near
breakdown
 Voltage regulation is perhaps the most common
application of a zener diode. The zener diode is
connected parallel with the load of the power
supply. The zener voltage remains constant
despite load current variations
 Zener diode allows current to flow in the forward
direction. However, it differs from an ordinary
diode in that its reverse-direction break-down
voltage is much lower than that of an ordinary
rectifying diode
 The large number of extra current-carriers
allows the zener diode to conduct current
in the reverse direction. This reverse-bias
current would destroy a normal diode, but
the zener is made to operate this way.
 Zener diodes can function as voltage-
sensitive switches because they allow
current to flow in the reverse direction only
when a specfified level of reverse voltage
is reached
 Zener diodes are often used as part of
automotive voltage-regulator circuits. A
simple zener diode regulator circuit are
such as below:
Zener diode analogy
 A 5-V zener diode is connected
in series with a resistor R, to the
variable DC input voltage. This
input voltage is connected so
that the zener diode is reverse-
biased. The series resistor (R,) is
required to drop all the input
voltage not dropped across the
zener diode
 As the input voltage is increased
from 0 V, the voltage across the
zener diode increases until the 5-
V zener voltage is reached. At
this point the zener diode
conducts and maintains a
constant 5-V output as the input
voltage varies from 5 to 9 V.
Volt-Ampere Characteristic Curve
RECTIFYING DIODE
 Rectification is the process of changing alternating current (AC) to
direct current (DC). Because of their ability to allow current to flow in
only one direction, diodes are used as rectifiers.
 During the positive half-cycle of the AC input wave, the anode side of
the diode is positive. The diode is then forword-biased, allowing it to
conduct a current flow to the load
 Since the diode acts as a closed switch during this time, the positive
half-cycle is developed across the load
 During the negative half-cycle of the AC input wave, the anode side of
the diode is negative. The diode is now reverse-biased; as a result, no
current can flow through it. Since the diode acts as an open switch
during this time, no voltage is produced across the load. Thus,
applying a constant AC voltage produces a pulsating DC voltage
across the load.
Single phase half-wave rectifier circuit
Single phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit
Three-phase three-wave rectifier circuit
 It is necessary to convert the alternating
current from the alternator into direct
current before it can be used to charge
the battery and operate other circuits of
the vehicle. The automotive alternator
uses a six-diode, three-phase bridge
rectifier circuit to accomplish this. Figure
shows the two typical configurations
used; wye-wound stator and delta-
wounnd stator.
Typical rectifier circuit configuration
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
 A light emitting diode (LED) is a special
semiconductor diode designed specifically
to emit light when current flow s through it
 When forward-biased, the energy of the
electrons flowing through the resistance of
the potential barrier is converted directly to
light energy.
 Because the LED is a diode, current will
flow only when the LED is connected in
forward-bias.
 The diode itself is only a part of the LED
package. It also requires leads and a
plastic lens to diffuse the light.
Light-emitting diode (LED)
Use this formula to determine the
resistance of the series dropping
resistor Rs.
Rs = VIN - VLED
ILED
= 12 V - 1.5 V
22 mA
= 0.477 kΩ
= 477 Ω (470 Ω is the closest
standard resistance value)
 The main advantages of using an
LED as a light source rather than
an ordinary light bulb are a much
lower power consumption and a
much higher life expectancy.
 LEDs are used in some
automotive circuits for indicator
lights and digital displays.
 LEDs can be used as single
indicator lights or can be
arranged to display an alpha or
numeric character. They are
available in red, yellow and green
Seven-segment common anode LED display
 For this application, the LEDs are arranged in
seven separate segments.
 When the correct voltages are applied to the
LEDs, one or more of the segments will light up
to permit the display of digits 0 to 9. With the
switch closed, segments A, B, C, D and G light
up to form the number 3.
 An LED is not well suited for automotive
display use because of its low brightness.
Although it can be seen easily in darkness, it is
rather difficult to see in bright sunlight. It also
requires more electrical power to operate
compared with other displays
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) scatter light rather than generate it. As a
result, they have the lowest power drain of any display.
 Their low power consumption makes them ideally suited for use in
battery-operated devices such as digital multi-meters.
 Other advantages over LED-type displays include better readability in
sunlight and adaptability for use with more complex display patterns.
 A thin layer of transparent liquid crystal or polarized fluid is sandwiched
between two glass plates. The display has electrodes placed on the
glass.
 When there is no voltage applied, light cannot pass through the fluid
because of the random arrangement of light slots in the fluid.
 Selectively applying voltage to the segment contacts produces an
electrostatic field, which forces the liquid crystal molecules within the
electrostatic field to rearrange themselves.
 As a result, light striking this part of the display is scattered, causing the
segments to appear black on a silvery background.
 Although the LCD can be read in the daytime (Just the Opposite of the
LED), small lamps must be used inside the display for it to be seen at
night. Another limitation of the LCD for automotive applications is that
the display does not work well at the low temperatures encountered
during winter driving in some areas.
 Assignment
1. Name three popular semiconductor devices.
2. What is the electron valence for Si and Ge?
3. How is a pure semiconductor crystal made to conduct electricity
better.
4. Explain the process of producing N-type semiconductor
materials.
5. Explain the What is the most commonly used semiconductor
material.
6. process of producing P-type semiconductor materials.
7. Compare the way electricity is conducted in N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
8. Is the Si doped with phosphorus, its goes to N-type or P-type?
9. True or False? Hole current is in the same direction as electron
flow.
10. Is forward current a flow of majority or minority charge carries?
11. How does current flow through a PN junction or diode.
12. What determines whether a diode is forward or reverse biased?
13. Draw the symbol for a diode and correctly label its leads.
14. State two ways in which diodes are rated.
14. Why are power diodes, such as those used an alternator,
mounted in heat sinks?
15. For what are rectifying diodes used?
16. State two advantages of three-phase rectifiers over single-
phase rectifiers.
17. What is the purpose of the filter device used in some rectifier
circuits?
18. In what way is the operation of zener diode different from that
of a standard diode?
19. Draw the symbol for a zener diode; correctly label leads.
20. What are LEDs specifically designed to do?
21. Draw the symbol for an LED and shows the label leads.
22. Describe the basic construction of a typical LCD.
23. What determines whether a diode is forward or reverse biased
24. Draw a schematic diagram of a diode in the forward-bias with
a DC voltage.
25. State two ways in which diodes are rated.