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‡ Geological forces that shape the physical appearance of the
world.
‡ such as earthquakes, erosion, resource depletion, and plate
movements.
‡ Physical Activity exists at the surface level.
‡ examples of these processes on our landscape include the
creation of the Grand Canyon, separating Pangaea into the
multiple continents we have now, and effecting the tides.
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‡ Until the 20th century, most scientists believed the Earth's crust
was rigid.

‡ Thought the continents were fixed in place; immobile.

‡ Thought that continents were formed as a result of magma


cooling in irregular shapes.
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‡ Revived the idea of continental drift, first introduced by
early scientists.
‡ Collected a lot of evidence to support Pangaea theory.
‡ Pangaea means "whole land" in Greek.
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‡ He noted the many similarities between the continents:


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‡ South Africa, Australia and Madagascar.
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‡ Many scientists discredited his theories.

‡ His theories didn't add up to experts back then because plate tectonics
had not yet been discovered.
 
 
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c & currents bring


magma from the asthenosphere
up through fissures in the oceanic
lithosphere at the mid-ocean
ridge. The cooled and solidified
magma become a new portion of
the of the ridge along the ocean
floor, and the two sides of the new
portion then spread away from
each other. In places where
denser ocean lithosphere
converges with less dense
continental lithosphere, the ocean
lithosphere slides under the
continental. This process is called
#"" . Magma produced
by subduction rises to form
volcanoes and other igneous
intrusions.
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   past magnetic orientation.
- When any rock containing iron is formed, like the ocean floor, it is magnetized so that the
iron-rich grains become aligned with Earth¶s magnetic field. The orientation then becomes
a permanent record of the polarity of Earth¶s magnetic field at the time the rock solidified.
- New basaltic ocean floor is magnetized according to the existing magnetic field of the
Earth. As the ocean floor spreads away from a ridge, a symmetrical pattern of normal
and reversed magnetic polarity develops on both sides of the spreading center.
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inal confirmation of seafloor
spreading was obtained from core
holes drilled into the ocean floor by
a research ship. Several thousand
   of sea bottom
sediments were analyzed, and it
was evident that sediment thickness
and age increase with increasing
distance from the mid ocean ridges.
This indicates that sediments
farthest from the ridges are the
oldest. At the ridges, ocean floor
material is almost all igneous, with
little accumulation of sediment. Any
sediment near the ridges are thin
and young.
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Usually represented by a 
. At this type of boundary,
magma from the asthenosphere
wells up in the opening between
plates. This upward flow of molten
material produces a line of volcanic
vents that spill out basaltic lava onto
the ocean floor. They are said to be
called ³constructive´ because
material is being added to the
crustal surface.

Divergent boundaries can also


develop within a continent, resulting
in a     & , such as
the East African Rift Valley
stretching from Ethiopia to
Mozambique.
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At a convergent boundary,
plates collide and are
sometimes ³destructive´
boundaries because they result
in removal or compression of
the surface crust. Convergent
boundaries are responsible for
some of the most massive and
spectacular of earthly
landforms: major mountain
ranges, volcanoes, and oceanic
trenches. There are 3 major
types:    
     and
 .
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iecause oceanic lithosphere If the convergent boundary is Where there is a convergent
includes dense basaltic crust, between two oceanic plates, boundary between two
it is denser than continental subduction takes place. As continental plates, no
lithosphere, oceanic always one of the oceanic plates subduction takes place
underrides continental when subducts under the other, an because continental crust is
the two collide. The dense oceanic trench is formed, too buoyant to subduct.
oceanic plate sinks to the shallow and deep focus Instead, huge mountain
asthenosphere, which is earthquakes occur, and ranges, such as the Alps
"" . Wherever this volcanic activity is initiated with and Himalayas are built up.
boundary occurs, mountain volcanoes forming on the
ranges are formed, and a ocean floor. With time, a
parallel     &    occurs.
develops as the ocean floor is
pulled down by the subducting
plate.
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At a transform boundary, two plates slip past one
another laterally. This boundary is classified as
conservative because the plate movements are
basically parallel to the boundary, a situation that
neither creates new crust or destroys old. Transform
faults are associated with a great deal of seismic
activity, commonly producing shallow-focus
earthquakes.
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Refers to all the occurrences connected with the origin and the
movement of molten rock
This includes explosive volcanic eruptions and the solidification of molten
material below the surface

‡ +- Molten material below the surface

‡ &- Magma extruding onto Earth¶s surface, where it will cool and
harden

The ejection of lava into the open air can be explosive, destroying the
area around it
Items such as rock fragments, lava blobs, ashes, and dust can be
hurled up with the lava in large quantities

‡  - Solid rock fragment thrown into the air by volcanic
explosions
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‡ A volcano is considered active if it has erupted at least once within


historical times or is likely to do so again

‡ There are 550 active volcanoes in the world


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‡ 1-2 volcano eruptions will erupt with no historic activity

‡ Magma rises from the interior by-


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‡ Some volcanoes have an active life for only a few years, whereas
other volcanoes are randomly active for thousands of years
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‡ Volcanoes provide vital services to the planet


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‡ Magma contains:
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‡ All of the elements in magma are needed for plant growth

‡ When lava hardens it releases the nutrient into the soil which could take
decades of centuries
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‡ A lava flow spreads outward parallel with the surface it¶s flowing over

‡ The speed and distance covered by a lava flow depends on its thickness
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‡ Low-Silica iasaltic Lava-


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‡ High-Silica Lava-
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'  - A large scale outpouring of basaltic lava that may


cover an extensive area of Earth¶s surface

Scientists think that the dinosaur¶s extinction was a result of the flood
basalt eruptions of the Deccan Traps

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‡ Have gentle slopes


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‡ Consist of layer after layer of solidified lava flows


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‡ Emit higher silica ³intermediate lavas´
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‡ Explosively erupt

‡ Are steep-sided in the shape of a cone

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‡ Are small with an irregular shape

‡ Have thick lava


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‡ May develop within craters of composite volcanoes when the thick lava
moves up the vent

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‡ The smallest of the volcano peaks that has steep-sides

‡ Their cone-shaped peaks are built from the pyroclastic materials that
were ejected from the volcano vent

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c - A large, steep-sided, roughly circular depression

‡ Calderas are formed when a volcano explodes, collapses, or both

‡ The diameter is many times larger than the original volcanic vent(s)

‡ Shield volcanoes can develop summit calderas


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)  %-- a small, sharp spire that rises abruptly above the


surrounding land

Volcanic necks represent the throat of an old volcano that filled with
solidified lava after its final eruption
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‡ There are more than 50 volcanoes that have erupted within the last 200
years in the United States
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‡ uture eruptions could expose large


numbers of people to a wide range
of volcanic hazards
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‡ The U.S. Geological Survey and research universities are now looking
back at previous eruptions to map out the most likely paths of
pyroclastic flows and mudflows from volcanoes

‡ The monitoring includes:


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‡ Tiltmeters detect swellings of a volcano with magma
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‡ Knowing this can help authority figures to know where to evacuate local
populations when the next volcano erupts
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‡ Large amounts of gases are releases during an eruption


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‡ Sulfur dioxide can mix with water and come down to land as sulfuric
acid
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‡ The ejection of pyroclastic material and gases from a volcano can form
an eruption column
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‡ Large fragments of solid rick drop to the ground immediately around the
volcano (also called volcanic bombs)

‡ Smaller fragments of volcanic ash and dust form an eruption cloud


where large amounts of ash may fall
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‡ Result from the collapse of a lava dome or from the rapid subsidence of
an eruption column during an explosive eruption of a volcano

‡ Can travel down a volcano at or faster than 100 mph


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)  +" ( A fast-moving, muddy flow of volcanic ash and rock


fragments

‡ Can be caused by a loose mantle of ash and pyroclastic flow deposits on


the slopes of a volcano
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‡ Water mixes with the pyroclastic material which produces a fast-moving


slurry of mud and boulders

‡ They can reach a speed up to 30 mph

‡ They can travel up to 50 miles


 " "

 " " - eatures formed by the emplacement and cooling of


magma below the surface.

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‡ iatholiths: Largest and most amorphous.
‡ Usually at least 100km of surface area.
‡ Unknown depth
‡ orm the core of many mountain ranges
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‡ Core is usually made of granite. Granite is eventually exposed with time
due to erosion.
  

  
‡ Produced when slow flowing magma gets trapped between horizontal
rock.
‡ Resists magma flow and becomes mushroom shaped - forms hills.
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‡ Long, thin, intrusive body.

‡ Shape determined by the structure of pre-existing rocks.


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‡ Vertical sheets of magma.

‡ orce their way through fractures in pre-existing rocks.

‡ Usually narrow.

‡ Can stretch for many miles.


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‡ Least visible.

‡ Large numbers of veins found on ocean floor.

‡ ormed when magma is forced through small fractures in rocks.

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