POLYMERS

Historical development
Starting in 1811, Henri Braconnot did
pioneering work in derivative cellulose
compounds, perhaps the earliest important work
in polymer science. The development of
vulcanization later in the nineteenth century
improved the durability of the natural
polymer rubber, signifying the first
popularized semi-synthetic polymer. In 1907,
Leo Baekeland created the first completely
synthetic polymer, Bakelite, by reacting
phenol and formaldehyde at precisely
controlled temperature and pressure. Bakelite
was then publicly introduced in 1909.

Properties of Polymers :
Chain length - in general, the longer the
chains the stronger the polymer;
Side groups - polar side groups give
stronger attraction between polymer chains,
making the polymer stronger;
Branching - straight, unbranched chains can
pack together more closely than highly
branched chains, giving polymers that are
more crystalline and therefore stronger;
Cross-linking - if polymer chains are linked
together extensively by covalent bonds, the
polymer is harder and more difficult to
melt.

Applications of Polymers :

Agriculture and Agribusiness Polymeric

Industry
materialsAutomobile
are used in parts windshields
and, on for
soil to improve
fighter
aerationplanes , pipes
, provide , tanks
mulch packing plant
, and, promote materials,
insulation wood substitutes
growth and, health . , adhesives, matrix
for composites
Medicine and elastomers
Many ,biomaterials are all polymer
, especially heart
applications used inand
valve replacements theblood
industrial
vesselsmarket
, are made
.
Sports Playground
of polymers equipment
like Dacron , various
, Teflon and balls, golf
clubs, swimming
polyurethane . pools, and protective helmets
are often Science
Consumer producedPlastic
from polymers
containers
. of all
shapes and sizes are light weight and
economically less expensive than the more
traditional containers. Clothing, floor
coverings, garbage disposal bags, and packaging
are other polymer applications.
sification of Polymers :           

•Thermoplasts:
Thermoplasts polymers soften when heated
and harden when cooled. Simultaneous
application of heat and pressure is
required to fabricate these materials.
•Thermosets:
Thermosetting polymers become soft during
their first heating and become permanently
hard when cooled. They do not soften during
subsequent heating. Hence, they cannot be
remolded/reshaped by subsequent heating.
Polymers
•Polymers include the familiar plastic and
rubber materials.

•Many of them are organic compounds

that are chemically based on carbon,
hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements (viz. O, N, and Si).
Furthermore, they have very large
molecular structures, often chain-like
in nature that have a backbone of
carbon atoms.
Some of the common and familiar polymers
are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly vinyl
chloride (PVC), polycarbonate (PC),
polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber. These
materials typically have low densities
(Figure 1.3),
Density (g/cm3) (logarithmic scale)
whereas their mechanical
characteristics are
generally dissimilar to the
metallic and ceramic
materials—they are not as
stiff nor as strong as
these other material types
(Figures 1.4 and 1.5).
Stiffness [Elastic (or Young’s) Modulus (in units of
gigapascals)] (logarithmic scale)
Strength (Tensile Strength, in units of
megapascals) (logarithmic scale)
However, on the basis of their low
densities, many times their
stiffnesses and strengths on a per
mass basis are comparable to the
metals and ceramics.
In addition, many of the polymers are
extremely ductile and pliable (i.e.,
plastic), which means they are easily
formed into complex shapes. In general,
they are relatively inert chemically and
unreactive in a large number of
environments. One major drawback to the
polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures,
which, in some instances, limits their use.
Furthermore, they have low electrical
conductivities (Figure 1.7) and are
nonmagnetic.
 Electrical Conductivity (in units of
reciprocalohm-meters) (logarithmic scale)
The photograph in Figure 1.10 shows
several articles made of polymers that
arefamiliar .
Figure 1 . 10
Several
common objects
that are made of
polymeric materials:
plastic tableware
(spoon, fork, and
knife), billiard
balls,
a bicycle helmet, two
dice, a lawnmower
wheel (plastic hub
and rubber tire), and
a plastic milk
carton.
(Photography by
S. Tanner.)