Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Resource and
Characterisic
Water resources
• vary in regional/local patterns of availability
• dependent on topographic & meteorological
conditions
• dependent on the physical features of the
earth and on the earth’s geological structure
3 types of water resources:
1. Surface water
2. Ground water
3. Sea water
Utilitas
Water quality characteristics
• Physical
• Chemical
• Biological
Utilitas
Physical characteristics
• Temperature
• Turbidity
• Suspended solid
• Taste and odor
Utilitas
Chemical characteristics
SCALING
• pH
• Alkalinity
• Hardness
CORROSION
• Conductivity
• Dissolved organic,
inorganic materials
& gas
Utilitas
pH
• Indicates the hydrogen ion concentration
in water
• pH > 7 scaling
• pH < 7 corrosion
Utilitas
Alkalinity
• A measure of the water’s ability to absorb
hydrogen ions without significant pH change
• Water alkalinity is determined by carbonate ions
and hydroxyl ions (OH-)
• The carbonate system is comprised of the
following chemical species:
– Aqueous carbon dioxide CO2 (aq)
– Carbonic acid H2CO3
– Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
– Carbonate ion CO32-
Utilitas
A series of alkalinity reaction
CO2(aq) + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
HCO3- H+ + CO32-
CO32- + H2O HCO3- + OH-
If there is a source of solid CaCO3, then the
solubility reaction for CaCO3(s) applies in
the system:
CaCO3(s) Ca2+ + CO32-
Utilitas
• From the equations, it can be seen that
CO2 and three forms of alkalinity are all
part of one system that exist in equlibrium
• A change of concentration of one ions will
result in a change in pH
Utilitas
CO2 pH 4.5 – 8.5
HCO3- pH 4.5 – 9.5
CO32- pH 8.5 – 14
OH - pH 9.0 -- 14
Utilitas
Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+]
where concentrations in the brackets are
[mol/L]
Utilitas
Analysis
• Using sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
• Alkalinity P (end point pH : 8.3)
CO3- HCO3-
• Alkalinity M (total alkalinity, end point pH : 4.5)
HCO3- H2CO3
Utilitas
Utilitas
Hardness
• The presence of multivalent cations, most
notably Ca and Mg ions
• 2 problems:
– The reaction between hardness and soap
produces a sticky, gummy deposit (soap curd)
– Ca2+ and Mg2+ precipitate while heated
reduces efficiency of HE
Utilitas
Hardness
There are 2 types of hardness based on
the anions
1. Carbonate hardness (CH) temporary
NCH = TH – CH
CH = HCO3- + CO32-
Utilitas
Hardness commonly expresses as mg/L
CaCO3
atom or molecular weight
Equivalent weight = n
mg/L of X as CaCO3 =
concentrat ion of X mg / L 50.0mg CaCO3 / meq
equivalent weight of X mg / meq
Utilitas
Hardness classification
hardness
Description
meq/l mg/L as CaCO3
Utilitas
Relationship between TDS & conductivity
varies according to solution concentration
TDS (mg/L)
Conductivity (mhos/cm)
Utilitas
Water Saturation Index
Saturation Index is a means of evaluating water
quality data to determine if the water has a
tendency to be corrosive or to form a chemicals
scale
The evaluation is based on the pH, alkalinity,
hardness, total dissolved solid or conductivity
There are many type of saturation index, the
most commonly used is :
Langelier saturation index
Ryznar saturation index
Utilitas
Langelier saturation index
• The saturation index (SI) can be
calculated as follows :
SI = pH – pHs
Utilitas
Utilitas
Utilitas
SI values and recommended treatment
www.water-research.net/corrosion.htm
Utilitas
Utilitas
Biological characteristics
• Microbiological contaminants
• Microorganisms:
– Non-pathogenic
– Pathogenic
• Coliform bacteria (typically e.coli) are used
as indicator organisms
• The presence of coliform suggests that the
water is contaminated
Utilitas
Summary
Ground water Characteristic Surface water
Low turbidity High
High mineral Vary
Low dissolved O2 Vary
Low microorganism High
Stable temp & chem Unstable
Low pollutant High
Utilitas