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Water :

Resource and
Characterisic
Water resources
• vary in regional/local patterns of availability
• dependent on topographic & meteorological
conditions
• dependent on the physical features of the
earth and on the earth’s geological structure
3 types of water resources:
1. Surface water
2. Ground water
3. Sea water
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Water quality characteristics
• Physical
• Chemical
• Biological

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Physical characteristics
• Temperature
• Turbidity
• Suspended solid
• Taste and odor

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Chemical characteristics
SCALING
• pH
• Alkalinity
• Hardness
CORROSION
• Conductivity
• Dissolved organic,
inorganic materials
& gas

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pH
• Indicates the hydrogen ion concentration
in water
• pH > 7  scaling
• pH < 7  corrosion

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Alkalinity
• A measure of the water’s ability to absorb
hydrogen ions without significant pH change
• Water alkalinity is determined by carbonate ions
and hydroxyl ions (OH-)
• The carbonate system is comprised of the
following chemical species:
– Aqueous carbon dioxide CO2 (aq)
– Carbonic acid H2CO3
– Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
– Carbonate ion CO32-
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A series of alkalinity reaction
CO2(aq) + H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-
HCO3-  H+ + CO32-
CO32- + H2O  HCO3- + OH-
If there is a source of solid CaCO3, then the
solubility reaction for CaCO3(s) applies in
the system:
CaCO3(s)  Ca2+ + CO32-
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• From the equations, it can be seen that
CO2 and three forms of alkalinity are all
part of one system that exist in equlibrium
• A change of concentration of one ions will
result in a change in pH

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 CO2  pH 4.5 – 8.5
 HCO3-  pH 4.5 – 9.5
 CO32-  pH 8.5 – 14
 OH -  pH 9.0 -- 14

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Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+]
where concentrations in the brackets are
[mol/L]

If the concentrations are measured in terms


of equivalents, or in mg/L as CaCO3:
Alkalinity (meq/L) = (HCO3-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) – (H+)

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Analysis
• Using sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
• Alkalinity P (end point pH : 8.3)
CO3-  HCO3-
• Alkalinity M (total alkalinity, end point pH : 4.5)
HCO3-  H2CO3

If P alk = 0 all of the alkalinity is bicarbonate

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Hardness
• The presence of multivalent cations, most
notably Ca and Mg ions
• 2 problems:
– The reaction between hardness and soap
produces a sticky, gummy deposit (soap curd)
– Ca2+ and Mg2+ precipitate while heated 
reduces efficiency of HE

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Hardness
There are 2 types of hardness  based on
the anions
1. Carbonate hardness (CH)  temporary

hardness. It can be removed by simply


heating the water.
associated with HCO3- & CO32-
Ca2+ + 2HCO3-  CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
bicarbonate Ca bicarbonate
2. Noncarbonate hardness (NCH)
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Total hardness (TH) = Ca2+ + Mg2+

NCH = TH – CH

CH = HCO3- + CO32-

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Hardness commonly expresses as mg/L
CaCO3
atom or molecular weight
Equivalent weight = n

mg/L of X as CaCO3 =
concentrat ion of X  mg / L   50.0mg CaCO3 / meq
equivalent weight of X  mg / meq 

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Hardness classification
hardness
Description
meq/l mg/L as CaCO3

Soft <1 < 50

Moderately hard 1–3 50 – 150

Hard 3–6 150 – 300

Very hard >6 > 300


* Masters, G.M. 1998. Introduction to environmental engineering and science. p281
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Conductivity
Electrical conductivity: a measure of the
ionic activity of a solution in terms of its
capacity to transmit current
Can be used to predict total dissolved solid
Units: micromhos/cm

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Relationship between TDS & conductivity
varies according to solution concentration
TDS (mg/L)

Conductivity (mhos/cm)

Dilute solution Concentrated solution

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Water Saturation Index
 Saturation Index is a means of evaluating water
quality data to determine if the water has a
tendency to be corrosive or to form a chemicals
scale
 The evaluation is based on the pH, alkalinity,
hardness, total dissolved solid or conductivity
 There are many type of saturation index, the
most commonly used is :
Langelier saturation index
Ryznar saturation index

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Langelier saturation index
• The saturation index (SI) can be
calculated as follows :

SI = pH – pHs

• Whereas pHs = theoritical pH or pH at


saturation can be determined from graph
or by calculation

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SI values and recommended treatment
www.water-research.net/corrosion.htm

SATURATION INDEX DESCRIPTION RECOMMENDATION


-5 Severe corrosion Treatment recommended
-4 Severe corrosion Treatment recommended
-3 Moderate corrosion Treatment recommended
-2 Moderate corrosion Treatment may be needed
-1 Mild corrosion Treatment may be needed
-0.5 None-mild corrosion Probably no treatment
0 Near balanced no treatment
0.5 Some faint coating Probably no treatment
1 Mild scale coating Treatment may be needed
2 Mild to moderate coating Treatment may be needed
3 Moderate scale forming Treatment advisable
4 Severe scale forming Treatment advisable
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Ryznar saturation index
• The Ryznar Stability index is an empirical method for
predicting scaling tendencies of water based on a study
of operating results with water of various saturation
indices
• This index is often used in combination with the
Langelier index to improve the accuracy in predicting the
scaling or corrosion tendencies of a water.

Stability index = 2pHs - pH = pHs - Langelier's Saturation pH

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Biological characteristics
• Microbiological contaminants
• Microorganisms:
– Non-pathogenic
– Pathogenic
• Coliform bacteria (typically e.coli) are used
as indicator organisms
• The presence of coliform suggests that the
water is contaminated
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Summary
Ground water Characteristic Surface water
Low turbidity High
High mineral Vary
Low dissolved O2 Vary
Low microorganism High
Stable temp & chem Unstable
Low pollutant High
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