NON-DESTRUCTIVE

INSULATION TEST
TECHNIQUES
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Contents
1. Non Destructive Testing of Electrical Equipment
2. Dielectric Loss Measurement
2.1 What is Dielectric Loss?
2.2 Why do we measure di-electric loss?
2.3 Methods for measuring tanδ and capacitance
2.3.1 The Schering Bridge
2.3.2 Wagner Earth Arrangement
2.3.3 Current Comparator Bridges
2.3.4 Loss Measurement on Complete Equipment
2.3.5 Null Detectors
3. Partial-discharge measurements
3.1 The Basic PD Circuit
3.2 Measuring systems for apparent charge
3.3 Partial Discharge Measurement Techniques
4. Di-electric Constant
5. Measurement of DC Resistivity
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Aim of Testing the Insulation Properties.
5.3 Specimen and Electrode.
5.4 Materials Used for Electrode.
5.5 Wheatstone Bridge Arrangements For Winding Resistivity Of The
Specimen (For Solid Insulation).
5.6 Measurement of resistivity by Wheatstone Bridge Method (For Liquid
Insulators).
5.7 Measurement of resistivity by simple DC Galvanometer.
5.8 Calculations
 All electrical appliances are insulated with a gaseous or liquid or
solid or a suitable combination of these materials. The insulation is
provided between live parts or between live part and grounded
part of the appliance.
 The materials may be subjected to varying degrees of voltage,
temperatures and frequencies and it is expected of these to work
satisfactorily over these ranges which may occur occasionally in the
system.
 The dielectric losses must be low and the insulation resistance high
in order to prevent thermal breakdown of these materials. The void
formation within the insulating materials must be avoided as these
deteriorate the dielectric materials.
 When an insulating material is subjected to a voltage for
investigation, it is usually not possible to draw conclusion regarding
the cause of breakdown from the knowledge of the breakdown
voltage particularly in solid materials.
 Earlier, the quality of insulation was judged , mainly by the insulation
resistance and its dielectric strength.
 However, these days high voltage equipments and the installations
are subjected to various tests. These tests should also yield
information regarding the life expectancy and the long term
stability of the insulating materials.
 One of the possible testing procedure is to over-stress insulation with
high a.c and/ or d.c or surge voltages.
 However, the disadvantage of the technique is that during the
process of testing the equipment may be damaged if the insulation
is faulty.
 For this reason, following non-destructive testing methods that
permit early detection for insulation faults are used:
 Measurement of the insulation resistance under d.c voltages.
 Determination of loss factor tan ꝸ and the capacitance C.
 Measurement of partial discharges.
1. Non Destructive Testing of Electrical
Equipment

 It infers evaluation of the quality of electrical insulation provided to

the equipment.
 It is required so as to guarantee satisfactory service of the
equipment over the stipulated life span. The measurement
techniques adopted are primarily electrical.
 As it infers, the non-destructive test measurements ought not make
any harm the equipment yet uncover the quality and condition of
the dielectric performance.
2. Dielectric Loss Measurement
2.1 What is Dielectric Loss?
 Dielectric loss is the of energy that goes into heating a dielectric
material, in a varying electrical field.
 For example, a capacitor placed in an alternating-current circuit is
alternately charged and discharged in each half cycle. During the
alternation of polarity of the plates, the charges must be displaced
through the dielectric first in one direction and then in the other, and
overcoming the opposition that they encounter leads to a production
of heat through dielectric loss.
 It is a characteristic that must be considered when applying capacitors
to electric circuits.
 Dielectric losses depend on frequency and the dielectric material. It is
widely employed industrially for heating thermosetting glues, for
drying lumber and other fibrous materials, for preheating plastics before
molding, and for fast jelling and drying of foam rubber.
2.2 Why do we measure di-electric loss?
 It is well known, that di-electric loss is a characteristic property of different di-
electric materials.
 All kinds of dielectrics and systems can be characterized by their inherent
polarization phenomena, which in the frequency domain can be expressed by
a capacitance C and a magnitude of power dissipation (dielectric loss).
 This magnitude of di-electric loss is quantified by the dissipation or loss factor tan
δ.
 These quantities are of utmost interest for new materials, nearly every new HV
equipment prior to the delivery, will undergo a test related to “C tan δ” for a
final quality control.
 Tests are only made with a frequency for which the equipment is designed.
 Such tests are in general, made in dependence of the test voltage applied;
both magnitudes, capacitance and dissipation factor shall be essentially
constant with increasing voltage, as insulation systems are linear systems, and
any ‘tip-up’ of the tan δ with voltage level, called ‘ionization knee’, is a initial
indication of ‘partial discharges’ within the system.
 Nowadays, new measurement equipment based on standard testing
procedures are equipped with microprocessor control and evaluation software.
2.3 Methods for measuring tanδ and
capacitance

 Following are the methods for measuring loss factor (tanδ) and
capacitance:

1. The Schering Bridge

2. Wagner Earth Arrangement
3. Current Comparator Bridges
4. Loss Measurement on complete equipment (Faraday Cage)
5. Null Detectors
2.3.1 The Schering Bridge

 It is one of the most commonly used methods for measuring ‘loss

tangent’, tan δ and capacitance with high precision.
 It was originally found by P. Thomas in 1915 and introduced to HV
measurements by H. Schering in 1920.
 The bridge measures the capacitance CX and loss angle ,(i.e. tan δ)
of a capacitor or any capacitance of a specimen by comparing it
with a gas-filled standard capacitor CN, which has very low and
nearly negligible loss over a wide frequency range and can be built
for test voltages up to the megavolt range.
 The ‘X’ HV arm of the bridge consists of a sample, the dielectric loss
and capacitance of which are to be measured.
 For the Schering bridge, the balance
conditions are always derived for this
series RX-CX equivalent circuit. For any
series equivalent circuit the dissipation
factor tan δ is defined by the following
equation:
 tan δs = ωRsCs.
 The balance conditions obtained when
the indicator (null detector) ‘G’ shows
zero deflection.
 By separation of the real and imaginary
terms we get:
𝑅4 C4
 CX = CN RX = R3CN
𝑅3
 By substitution we get,
 ωCxRx = ωC4R4 = (tan δ)x.
 This procedure is time consuming and
inconvenient, and there are methods The high voltage Schering bridge
available to overcome this effect.
2.3.2 Wagner Earth Arrangement
 This arrangement was introduced by K.W. Wagner in 1911. It can be
applied to Schering Bridge.
 In this arrangement an additional arm Z is connected between the
LV terminal of the four-arm bridge and earth. The dotted line shows
the screening.
 It is used for removing the earth capacitance from the bridges. It is a
type of voltage divider circuit used to reduces the error which
occurs because of stray capacitance.
 At high frequency, stray capacitance is induced between the
bridge elements, ground and between the arms of the bridge. This
stray element causes the error in the measurement.
 One of the way, of controlling these capacitances is to enclose the
bridge elements into the shield. Another way of eliminating these
stray capacitance is to places the Wagner Earth device between
the elements of the bridge.
 This arrangement had some disadvantages, like the value of Z
required changing as the value for stray capacitances changed so
this arrangement was modified as operational amplifiers for
automatic balancing of ‘Wagner earth’ were introduced.
 2.3.3 Current Comparator Bridges
 As, some drawbacks of the Schering bridge like temperature and
ageing lead to the development of improved forms of bridge circuits.
 These have been based on ‘inductive coupling’ or ‘ampere-ratio
arms’.
 The fundamental circuit arrangement for the measurement of
capacitance and losses in HV capacitors was introduced by Glynne.
 The main part of the bridge circuit consists of a three-winding current
comparator which is carefully and heavily shielded against magnetic
stray fields and protected against mechanical vibrations.
 The particular merit in this arrangement is that there is no net m.m.f.
across windings 1 and 2 at balance conditions.
 Furthermore, the stray capacitance across the windings and that of
the screened LV leads does not enter in the balance expression.
 The sensitivity of the bridge is higher than that of the Schering bridge.
 The uncertainty and sensitivity of this type of bridge is better than that
indicated for the Schering bridge; the working frequency range is
about 50 Hz to 1 kHz.
2.3.4 Loss Measurement on Complete
Equipment
 It is often required to measure the dielectric loss on specimens one
side of which is permanently earthed.
 There are two established methods used for such measurement.
 One is the inversion of a Schering bridge, with the operator, ratio
arms and null detector inside a Faraday cage (i.e. an earthed metal
screen to shield the equipment from electrostatic and
electromagnetic influences) at high potential.
 An alternative method, though limited to lower voltages, employs
an artificial earth which differs in potential from a true earth by the
voltage developed across each of the LV arms.
2.3.5 Null Detectors

 The null detector G for ancient bridges was simply a vibration

galvanometer.
 The sensitivity to mechanical noise (if present) and the limited electrical
sensitivity presented some disadvantages.
 Like, noise voltages from the circuit, or electromagnetically induced
voltages from the stray fields of the HV circuit, disturbed the balance.
 A very much improved balance is possible using electronic null
detectors which are also sensitive to the phase.
 By the use of phase-sensitive null detectors, the balance condition is
indicated in terms of magnitude and phase. With a reference voltage
in phase with the (high) source voltage, these values describe some
figures which are displayed on the screen of CRO.
 In this way the balancing procedure is always known and the balance
is obtained much faster.
3. Partial Discharge Measurement

 PDs are localized electrical discharges within any insulation system

as applied in electrical apparatus, components or systems.
 The measurement of partial discharges is very important since every
discharge event causes a deterioration of the material by the
energy impact of high energy electrons or accelerated ions,
causing chemical transformations of many types.
3.1 The Basic PD Circuit
 For the evaluation of the fundamental quantities related to a PD
pulse we simulate the test object, as usual, by the simple capacitor
arrangement as shown in Fig.(a), comprising solid or fluid dielectric
materials between the two electrodes or terminals A and B, and a
gas-filled cavity.
 The electric field distribution within this test object is here simulated
by some partial capacitances.
 This void will become the origin of a PD if the applied voltage is
increased, as the field gradients in the void are strongly enhanced
by the difference in permittivities as well as by the shape of the
cavity. For an increasing value of an a.c. voltage the first discharge
will appear at the crest or rising part of a half-cycle.
3.2 Measuring systems for apparent charge

 The following types of measuring systems all comprise the

subsystems: coupling device (CD), transmission system or
connecting cable (CC), and a measuring instrument (MI).
 In general the transmission system, necessary to transmit the output
signal of the CD to the input of the MI, does not contribute to the
measuring system characteristics as both ends are matched to the
characteristics of both elements. The CC will thus not be considered
further.
 The input impedance Zmi of the CD or measuring system
respectively will have some influence on the waveshape of the PD
current pulse.
 In common with the first two measuring systems for apparent
charge is a newly defined ‘pulse train response’ of the instruments to
quantify the ‘largest repeatedly occurring PD magnitude’, which is
taken as a measure of the ‘specified partial discharge magnitude’
as permitted in test objects during acceptance tests under specified
test conditions.
3.3 Partial Discharge Measurement Techniques

 Visual – Blackout test:

This was used in the old days. A stator would be covered by a tarp to
make it dark inside, and AC power was connected to the stator. With
sufficient PD, the light emitted can be seen.
 Audio receiver:

Since discharges generate a crackling sound, audio receivers can

be used to measure how loud the sound is, and that is related to the
amount of Partial Discharge in a stator. AC power is connected to
the stator to generate PD. The receiver is placed or held with a
probe inside the stator.
 RF detector:
Radio Frequency waves are generated with any discharge. The “driver”
for PD is typically an AC voltage or an AC Hipot tester. In stators, the
voltage of RF waves can be measured using an RF receiver and an
oscilloscope. The receiver is placed on a probe and inserted into the
stator. The highest concentration of PD can be located by moving the
probe around inside the stator. Assembled motors cannot be tested
since the RF signals are shielded from the receiver by the motor frame.
RF noise from sources other than the motor can be an issue, particularly
with the increasingly prevalent use of wireless devices.
 AC Hipot test with a capacitive coupling to an instrument:

Couplers can be used when AC power is connected to a stator or and

assembled motor. The couplers are connected to the motor leads and
act like a high pass filter, only passing high-frequency PD spikes to the
instrument or oscilloscope the coupler is connected to.
 Surge test with a coupler:

Like an AC Hipot tester, a surge tester can be used as the “driver” to

generate PD in a stator and in assembled motors. This partial
discharge measurement technique is not sensitive to outside noise.
4. Di-electric Constant
 The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance
to the permittivity of free space.
 κ = ε/εo
 It is an expression of the extent to which a material concentrates
electric flux.

 It is the electrical equivalent of relative magnetic permeability ( εr=

ε/εo ).
 As the dielectric constant increases, the electric flux density
increases, if all other factors remain unchanged.
 It enables objects of a given size, such as sets of metal plates, to
hold their electric charge for long periods of time or to hold large
quantities of charge.
 Materials with high dielectric constants are useful in the manufacture of
high-value capacitors.
 Value of dielectric constant is always greater than or equal to 1.
 The larger the dielectric constant, the more charge can be stored.
 Completely filling the space between capacitor plates with a dielectric
increases the capacitance by a factor of the dielectric constant.
 For a parallel-plate capacitor containing a dielectric that completely
fills the space between the plates, the capacitance is given by:
 C = κ εo A / d
 The capacitance is maximized if the dielectric constant is maximized,
and the capacitor plates have large area and are placed as close
together as possible.
 Generally, substances with high dielectric constants break down more
easily when subjected to intense electric fields, than do materials with
low dielectric constants.
 For example, dry air has a low dielectric constant, but it makes an
excellent dielectric material for capacitors used in high-power
radio-frequency (RF) transmitters.

 Below table gives dielectric constant of different materials.

Material Dielectric constant Dielectric Strength

(kV/mm)

Vacuum 1.00000 -

Air (dry) 1.00059 3

Polystyrene 2.6 24

Paper 3.6 16

Water 80 -
5. Measurement of DC Resistivity
5.1 Introduction

 Various electrical devices, insulation is vital part to safeguard the

operation and life of equipment.
 Used as a various natures, shapes and sizes
 Types of insulation are solid, liquid, gaseous and
 combinations
 Should have wide range of operating temperatures, to withstand
the varying climatic condition and wide range of frequencies even
up to several mega hertz
5.2 Aims of testing insulation properties

 It should be tested a sample of it so that it cannot create problem

in operation.
 A properly shaped specimen of insulation is taken for
these tests and tests are conducted at the desired temperature
Various methods for measuring dc resistance
 Using Galvanometer
 Using DC Amplifier
 Using Wheatstone bridge
5.3 Specimen and electrode
5.4 Material used for electrodes

 Lead of aluminum foil of thickness 10 to 50 μm thickness,

should be pressed and rolled on the specimen by suitable roller.
 Silver paint which is a very good conductor can also be used.
 Mercury can be used on which a specimen can be made to float
on it
5.5 Wheatstone bridge arrangement for
finding resistivity of specimen
 Rs = standard resistance
 RT = resistance of specimen
 Wheatstone bridge is formed by four resistance say
 RA and RB = resistance of two arms.
 One of the resistance say RA is made variable to get the
null point on the galvanometer.
 By adjusting the variable resistance RA of the bridge arm, the bridge is balanced. This is indicated by
ammeter reading of zero.
 The DC HV stable supply is generally 500 volts to 2 KV.
 This is measured by a suitable voltmeter V.
 Two way centre off switch B is used. Initially for charging
 the circuit by supply voltage it is thrown to position 1 When the necessary observation are noted, then for
discharging the circuit the switch B is Thrown to position 2. • At balance condition R or Rp = Rs* Ra/Rb
Wheatstone bridge principle.
𝑅∗𝜋 2
 • With the specimen arrangement used 𝜌 = 𝑟 Ωm
𝑡
 Where 𝜌= volume resistivity in Ω m
 t = thickness in m
 r = effective radius in meters
 Rp= measured resistance in Ω by bridge
5.6 Measurement of resistivity by Wheatstone
bridge(for liquid insulators)
 The experimental set up is the same as in solid insulation specimen.
 In place of solid insulation here it is liquid solution.
 The three electrode are connected to the bridge circuit and by
varying RA a nul point is obtained by balancing the bridge.
 In this case following calculation are done.
2𝜋𝑅𝑙
 𝜌= Ω cm
loge𝑑2/𝑑1
 Where 𝜌 = volume resistivity in Ω cm.
 R = measured resistance in Ω.
 l = effective length of the guarded electrode in meter.
 d1 = outer diameter of guarded electrode.
 d2 = inner diameter of unguarded electrode.
1,d1,d2 are Known values
5.7 Measurement of resistivity by simple dc
galvanometer
5.8 Calculations
𝑉
 • The resistances of the specimens (Rp) is given by Rp =𝐷∗𝐺
 where D = deflection in cm with specimen
 V = Galvanometer sensitivity A/c
1 1
 G = (V/Rs)*𝑛 𝐷𝑠
 Here Rs = standard resistance used for calibration
 V = Supply voltage
 Ds= Deflection in cm with standard resistance in position
 n = The universal shunt ratio,
 Volume resistivity 𝜌 = 𝜋r2R/t
 where t = thickness of specimen meter
 R = Specimen resistance
 r = radius of electrode
 The ideal will be cleared by taking actual observations of the experimental
in the following case.
6. Loss Factor (tan δ)

 The dielectric loss tangent (tan δ) of a material denotes

quantitatively dissipation of the electrical energy due to different
physical processes such as electrical conduction, dielectric
relaxation, dielectric resonance and loss from non-linear processes.
 The total dielectric loss is the sum of intrinsic and extrinsic losses.
 For a capacitor formed from a lossy dielectric material, the loss
tangent is the ratio at any particular frequency between the real
and imaginary parts of the impedance of the capacitor. A large loss
tangent means you have a lot of dielectric absorption.
 If you construct a capacitor C from a lossy dielectric, the dielectric
absorption causes the value of C to change with frequency.
 For a good dielectric, the value of C will very slowly deteriorate with
frequency.
 For a crummy dielectric with higher dielectric loss, the decay in
capacitance with frequency will be more pronounced.
 Hence, the rate of deterioration in capacitance is directly linked to
the loss tangent.
 Dielectric loss be parameterized in terms of either the loss angle δ or
the corresponding loss tangent tan δ. Both refer to the phasor in
the complex plane whose real and imaginary parts are
the resistive (lossy) component of an electromagnetic field and
its reactive (lossless) counterpart.
THANKS