Advanced Nuclear Physics by Imran Aziz

Advanced Nuclear
Physics
MOHAMMAD IMRAN AZIZ

Assistant Professor
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
SHIBLI NATIONAL COLLEGE,
AZAMGARH (India).
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
Nuclides
The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic
number of the atom and is given the symbol Z. The number of electrons in
an electrically-neutral atom is the same as the number of protons in the
nucleus. The number of neutrons in a nucleus is known as the neutron
number and is given the symbol N. The mass number of the nucleus is the
total number of nucleons, that is, protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The
mass number is given the symbol A and can be found by the equation Z + N
= A.
.
Nuclear constituents and their
why electrons cannot properties
exist inside a nucleus:
This can be explained mathematically also using Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle as follows
Confinement Calculation
Electtron is not found in the nucleus, it means we are talking about free electron. That is free
electron does not exist.n ....> p + e, here this is beta deacy and electron that becomes free is
emitted out of the nucleus as free electron as can not exist due to Heisenberg uncertainty.
Nuclear Spin
It is common practice to represent the total angular momentum of a
nucleus by the symbol I and to call it "nuclear spin". For electrons in
atoms we make a clear distinction between electron spin and electron
orbital angular momentum, and then combine them to give the
total angular momentum. But nuclei often act as if they are a single
entity with intrinsic angular momentum I. Associated with each nuclear
spin is a nuclear magnetic moment which produces magnetic
interactions with its environment.
The nuclear spins for individual protons and neutrons

parallels the treatment of electron spin, with spin 1/2
and an associated magnetic moment. The magnetic
moment is much smaller than that of the electron. For
the combination neutrons and protons into nuclei, the
situation is more complicated.
• A characteristic of the collection of protons and
neutrons (which are fermions) is that a nucleus of odd
mass number A will have a half-integer spin and a
nucleus of even A will have integer spin. The
suggestion that the angular momenta of nucleons tend
to form pairs is supported by the fact that all nuclei
with even Z and even N have nuclear spin I=0. The
half-integer spins of the odd-A nuclides suggests that
this is the nuclear spin contributed by the odd neutron
Nuclear Magnetic
Moments
• Associated with each nuclear spin is a
magnetic moment which is associated with the angular
momentum of the nucleus. It is common practice to
express these magnetic moments in terms of the
nuclear spin in a manner parallel to the treatment of
the magnetic moments of electron spin and electron
orbital angular momentum.
• For the electron spin and orbital cases, the magnetic
moments are expressed in terms of a unit called a
Bohr magneton which arises naturally in the treatment
of quantized angular momentum
Electric Quadrupole
Moments of Nuclei
The nuclear electric quadrupole moment is a parameter which
describes the effective shape of the ellipsoid of nuclear charge
distribution. A non-zero quadrupole moment Q indicates that the
charge distribution is not spherically symmetric. By convention, the
value of Q is taken to be positive if the ellipsoid is prolate and
negative if it is oblate.
The quantity Q0 is the classical form of the calculation

represents the departure from spherical symmetry in the rest
frame of the nucleus.
Generally, the measured quantity is proportional to the z-component of the
magnetic moment (the component along the experimentally determined
direction such as the direction of an applied magnetic field, etc. ). In this
treatment, the use of a "gyromagnetic ratio" or "g-factor" is introduced. The g-
factor for orbital is just gL = 1, but the electron spin g-factor is approximately
gS = 2
For free protons and neutrons with spin I =1/2, the
magnetic moments are of the form
where
Proton: g = 5.5856912 +/- 0.0000022
Neutron: g = -3.8260837 +/- 0.0000018
The proton g-factor is far from the gS = 2 for the electron, and even
the uncharged neutron has a sizable magnetic moment! For the
neutron, this suggests that there is internal structure involving the
movement of charged particles, even though the net charge of the
neutron is zero. If g=2 were an expected value for the proton and
g=0 were expected for the neutron, then it was noted by early
researchers that the the proton g-factor is 3.6 units above its
expected value and the neutron value is 3.8 units below its expected
value. This approximate symmetry was used in trial models of the
magnetic moment, and in retrospect is taken as an indication of the
internal structure of quarks in the standard model of the proton and
neutron
Note that the maximum effective magnetic moment of
a nucleus in nuclear magnetons will be the g-factor
multiplied by the nuclear spin. For a proton with g =
5.5857 the quoted magnetic moment is µ = 2.7928
nuclear magnetons.
Nuclide Nuclear Magnetic moment
spin I µ in µ N
n 1/2 -1.9130418
p 1/2 +2.7928456
2
H(D) 1 +0.8574376
17
O 5/2 -1.89279
57
Fe 1/2 +0.09062293
57
Co 7/2 +4.733
93
Nb 9/2 +6.1705
Nuclei
• Parameters of nuclei
• Strong Interaction
• Binding Energy
• Stable and Unstable Nuclei
• Liquid-Drop Model
Numerous Applications:
• nuclear power
• applications in medicine, biology and
chemistry
• evolution of stars and the Universe
• nuclear weapons
Size of Nuclei and Rutherford Scattering
- depends weakly on
R ≈ R0 A 1/3
A (number of
nucleons in the
nucleus)
R0 ≈ 1.2 ×10−15 m =1.2 fm Geiger, Marsden,
Rutherford,1910
R( U ) ≈ 1.2 fm ⋅( 238)
1/3
238
92 = 7.4 fm
Scattering pattern was consistent with that
α -particles: bare He expected for scattering of α particles by
nuclei pointlike objects having a charge of +79e (the
charge of the gold nucleus). This allowed
Rutherford to put an upper limit on the size of
the nucleus (<3× 10-14 m for gold).
Calculations were strictly classical. However, because of
the Coulomb interaction between alpha-particles and
nucleus, the result miraculously coincides with the exact
quantum-mechanical one (recall the success of the Bohr
model for atoms).
To measure the size of a
nucleus, one has to use more
energetic α particles (or R – the
electrons, which are more fitting
commonly used these days) parameter
that get close enough to get
Nuclear Mass
number of nucleons in the chemical
A
X
12
nucleus symbol for the 6 C
(mass number of the nucleus) Z element 6 protons + 6 neutrons
number of protons in the
nucleus
(atomic number of the element) The neutron number: N = A − Z
Atomic Mass (the mass of a neutral atom):
M = Z ⋅ mp + N ⋅ mn +U nucleus / c2 +Z ⋅me +U el.− nucl

. / c2
U nucleus , U el.− nucl. < 0 - attraction between nucleons in the nucleus

and between electrons and the nucleus
U el .− nucl . << U nucleus << m pc2 - we can neglect Uel.-nucl . and
introduce a convenient mass unit:
M 12 C
Mass Unit 1u ≡ 6
= 1.66054 ×10−27 kg =931.49MeV / c2
12
m p = proton mass =1.007277 u
mn = neutron mass =1.008665 u
me = electron mass = 0.000549 u
Nuclear Density
M A ⋅ ( 1au ) 1 au
ρ= ≈ =
3 3 3 3 3 3
πR π R0 A πR0
4 4 4
1.66 × 10−27 kg
=
3
π ( 1.2 × 10 m )
−15 3
=2.4 ×1017 kg / m 3
!
4
The density of neutron stars is comparable

with that of nuclei.
(Unstable) isotopes of tin

and zinc.
The Need for a “Strong Force”
Which interaction controls the size of nucleons? This cannot be electromagnetic
interaction: protons have the same electric charge (they would repel each
other) and also there are attractive forces between protons and electrically
neutral neutrons.
Strong Interaction:
binds protons to protons, neutrons to neutrons, and protons to neutrons with
roughly the same force
does not affect certain other kinds of particles (specifically electrons)
is short-ranged (the range ~ 2 fm). Nucleons separated by a larger distance
exert no strong forces on each other.
These observations are explained by the quark model of
nucleons. Nucleons are the combination of quarks that
g are strong-interaction-neutral (like an electrically-neutral
u atom). Two nucleons interact only if they are close
enough that the distances between various pairs of
quark
u d quarks are significantly different.
s and
gluon
s
~ 10-15 m
Structure of Matter
g
u
El.-mag.
interaction
determines the
quarks
u d
and
size of atoms
gluons
~ 10-15 m
~ 10-10 - 10-9 m Protons & Neutrons

(nucleons)
Atom is almost an are almost an empty
empty space (the
space (the quark size is
nuclear volume is
<10-18 m)
~10-15 of the
atomic volume) Strong interaction
determines the
size of nuclei and
nucleons
~ 10 - 10
-15 -14
m
Binding Energy
Binding energy: Esys + EB = E parts EB = E parts − Esys -the binding energy is

positive for a bound system
Recall a H atom: the binding energy is 13.6 eV (the ground state energy with
sign “minus”).
n
n p
p
add EB
n n
E parts = ∑ mi × c2 p
Esys
We can compute the binding energy if we know masses of a system and its
constituents:
EB = ( mass of all particles consituting the atom ) (−mass of the atom)  ×2c
=  Z ⋅ m1 H + N ⋅mn − M A X  ×c2 EB = ∆M ⋅ c2
 1 Z 
mass deficit
Binding Energy curve
Because of the short-range character of strong interaction (basically, between
nearest and next-to-nearest neighbors), the interaction energy per nucleon with
increasing Z saturates at the level ~ (Z/2)(# of neighbors).
Binding energy per nucleon (EB/A), MeV
The decrease of the binding energy with

increasing Z is caused by the long-range∆B ∝ −Z 2
Coulomb repulsion of protons:
Mass number, A
The binding energy ~ 10MeV/nucleon is ~1% of the nucleon’s
rest energy: we can consider the nucleus as a system of
individual nucleons
Liquid-Drop Model
( A − 2Z )
A “semi-classical” model of 2
Z2
the nucleus: describes EB = aV A − as A2/3 − ac 1/3 −aa
reasonably well the A A
dependence EB(A):
dq ( r )
ρ - charge density
q ( r)
q ( r) dq ( r )
 4 3
R0  ρ ⋅ π r ( ρ4 πr 2 ) dr
U ( R0 ) = ∫ 
3 
0
4πε 0 r
Liquid-Drop Model (cont’d)
Limitations of Liquid-Drop Model
Maria Goeppert-Mayer, J.H.D.Jensen
Stable Nuclei
Isotopes: all nuclei that have the same
number of protons (Z) but different
number of neutrons (N). Since the
chemical properties of an atom are
determined by the number of its
electrons, isotopes of the same element
have almost identical chemical
properties.
16 17 19
0 0 0
Example: naturally 8occurring
8 8 isotopes of
oxygen
Related questions:
- What makes unstable nuclei unstable?
- What are the mechanisms by which
they transform themselves into stable
nuclei?
-Why do light stable nuclei tend to have
N ≈ Z?
- Why do heavier nuclei tend to have
more neutrons than protons?
- Why are there no stable nuclei with
Z>83?
What makes unstable nuclei
unstable?
Both protons- and neutrons energy
are fermions (they obey the
exclusion principle). Nuclei 0
r
are two-component Fermi
systems. Each nuclear
energy level can contain
four particles: two protons
12
(s=± ½) and two neutrons
(s=± ½). 6 C
The potential experienced by nucleons is a 3D potential
well. The ground-state configuration of the carbon-16
nucleus :
If a nucleus is allowed to decrease its energy by
transforming “excessive” protons (neutrons) into neutrons protons neutrons
(protons), it will do it!
The processes responsible for these transformations are driven by weak
interaction (the fourth fundamental interaction):
The weak interaction (unlike the strong interaction) affects both quarks and
leptons, (unlike the el.-mag. interaction) can affect electrically neutral particles,
and (unlike gravity) does not affect photons.
The effective range of the weak interaction is ~ 10-18 m.
Some important transformation processes driven by weak interaction:
n → e− + p + +ν p + → n + e + +ν
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in p + + e − → n +ν
Why N ≈ Z for light nuclei
13 13
8 O energy 7 N energy
If the electrostatic
t1/ 2 = 8.9 ms repulsion of protons
can be neglected (this
is the case of light
nuclei: recall that the
positive electrostatic
energy ∝Z2), the
nucleus tends to keep
approximately equal
numbers of protons
protons neutrons protons neutrons
and neutrons.
14 14
6 C energy 7 N energy
Even in this case, the
nucleus can still lower
t1/ 2 = 5730 y its total energy: the
rest energy of neutron
is slightly more than
the rest energy of a
proton and an electron.

Why N > Z for heavy nuclei
44 44
22 Ti energy 20 Ca energy In the heavy nuclei, the
electrostatic energy cannot
be neglected. As a result, the
protons’ energy levels are
“pushed up” with respect to
the neutrons’ levels. In the
“otherwise stable” 44 Ti, two
protons undergo the
transformation into neutrons,
. . the end product is stable 44 Ca.
. . . .
. . . .
The proton-neutron disbalance becomes more

pronounced with increasing Z.
Nuclear Masses and
Sizes
• Masses and binding energies
– Absolute values measured with mass
spectrometers.
– Relative values from reactions and decays.
• Nuclear Sizes
– Measured with scattering experiments
(leave discussion until after we have
looked at Rutherford scattering).
– Isotope shifts
Nuclear Mass
Measurements
• Measure relative masses by energy
released in decays or reactions.
– X  Y +Z + ∆ E
– Mass difference between X and Y+Z is
∆ E/c2.
• Absolute mass by mass spectrometers
(next transparency).
• Mass and Binding energy:
• B = [Z MH + N Mn – M(A,Z)]/c2
Mass Spectrometer
• Ion Source
• Velocity selector  Detect
electric and magnetic or
forces equal and
opposite
– qE=qvB  v=E/B Velocity
• Momentum selector, selector
circular orbit satisfies: Ion
Source
– Mv=qBr
– Measurement r
gives M.
Binding Energy vs A
• B increases with A up to 56Fe and
then slowly decreases. Why?
• Lower values and not smooth at
small A.
Nuclear Sizes & Isotope
•
Shift
Coulomb field modified by finite size of nucleus.
• Assume a uniform charge distribution in the
nucleus. Gauss’s law 
integrate and apply boundary conditions
Ze r 3
E = −
• Difference between actual ( )
2 potential and Coulomb
4π 0εr R
• Use 1st order perturbation

Zer
theory
3Ze 2
V (r ) = − +
8π ε0 R 3 8π ε0 R
Zer 2 3Ze Ze
∆V (r ) = − + − (r < R )
8π 0εR 3 8π 0εR 4π 0εr
R Z 3/ 2 Z
2 *
∆E = ∫ 4πr ψ ( r )[− e∆V ( r )]ψ ( r )dr ψ ( r ) = 2( ) exp(− Zr / a0 ) ≈ 2( ) 3 / 2
0
a0 a0
Isotope Shifts
R
2 3 Zer 2
3Ze Ze
∆E = ∫ 4πr 4( Z / a ) ( −e)[− + − ] dr
0 8π 0εR 3 8π 0εR 4π 0εr
R
2 2 4πR 5 R 4πR 3 R
2 1
∫ 4π r r dr =
2
∫ 4π r dr = ∫ 4π r dr = 2πR 2
0 5 0 3 0 r
3 Ze 2 4  4  3 
∆E = ( −4e )( Z / a ) πR [− +    − 2 ]
4π 0ε 10  3  2 
2 2
2 Ze R
∆E = ( Z / a0 ) 3
5ε 0
Isotope Shifts
• Isotope shift for optical spectra
• Isotope shift for X-ray spectra (bigger
effect because electrons closer to
nucleus)
• Isotope shift for X-ray spectra for
muonic atoms. Effect greatly enhanced
because mµ ~ 207 me and a0~1/m.
• All data consistent with R=R0 A1/3 with
R0=1.25fm.
Liquid Drop Model
•
Nucleus
Phenomenological model to understand
binding energies.
• Consider a liquid drop
– Ignore gravity and assume no rotation
– Intermolecular force repulsive at short distances,
attractive at intermediate distances and
negligible at large distances  constant density.
E=-α n + 4π R2T B=α n-β n2/3
• Analogy with nucleus
– Nucleus has constant density
– From nucleon nucleon scattering experiments:
Nuclear force has short range repulsion and
attractive at intermediate distances.
– Assume charge independence of nuclear force,
neutrons and protons have same strong
interactions check with experiment!
Mirror Nuclei
• Compare binding energies of mirror nuclei (nuclei n p).
Eg 73Li and 74Be.
• Mass difference due to n/p mass and Coulomb energy.
R
Q(r )
E=∫ dQ
0 4π ε
0r
Q( r ) = Ze( r / R ) 3 dQ = 3 Zer 2 / R 3
3( Ze ) 2 r 5
R
( Ze )2
E=∫ dr = ( 3 / 5)
0 4 π ε
0 r R 6 4π 0εR
3 e2
∆E c ( Z , Z − 1) = [ Z ( Z − 1) − ( Z − 1)( Z − 2)] ; Z ~ A / 2 ; R ∝ A1 / 3
5 4π ε0 R
∆EC ( Z , Z − 1) ∝ A2 / 3
Liquid Drop Model Nucleus
• Phenomenological model to understand binding energies.
• Consider a liquid drop
– Ignore gravity and assume no rotation
– Intermolecular force repulsive at short distances, attractive at
intermediate distances and negligible at large distances  constant
density.
– n=number of molecules, T=surface tension, B=binding energy
E=total energy of the drop, α ,β =free constants
E=-α n + 4π R2T  B=α n-β n2/3
surface area ~ n2/3

 Analogy with nucleus
 Nucleus has constant density
 From nucleon-nucleon scattering experiments we know:
 Nuclear force has short range repulsion and is attractive at
intermediate distances.
 Assume charge independence of nuclear force, neutrons and
protons have same strong interactions check with
experiment (Mirror Nuclei!)
Coulomb Term
• The nucleus is electrically charged with total charge Ze
• Assume that the charge distribution is spherical and compute the
reduction in binding energy due to the Coulomb interaction
Ze
Q(r )
ECoulomb = ∫
0
4πε 0 r
dQ Q(r ) = Ze(r / R )3 dQ = 3Zer 2 / R 3dr
to change the integral to dr ; R=outer radius of

nucleus
R
3( Ze) 2 r 5 ( Ze) 2 includes self interaction of last
ECoulomb =
4∫πε r R 6
dr = (3 / 5)
4πε R
proton with itself. To correct this
0 0 0 replace Z2 with Z*(Z-1)
… and remember R=R0A-
1/3 in principle you could take d from this
Z *( Z − 1) calculation but it is more accurate to
BCoulomb ( Z , A) = − d 1/ 3 take it from the overall fit of the SEMF
A to data (nuclei not totally spherical or
homogeneous)
Mirror Nuclei
• Does the assumption of the drop model of constant binding
energy for every constituent of the drop acatually hold for nuclei?
• Compare binding energies of mirror nuclei (nuclei with np). Eg
3Li and 4Be.
7 7
• If the assumption holds the mass difference should be due to n/p

mass difference and Coulomb energy alone.
• Let’s compute the Coulomb energy correction from results on
previous page 2 2
3 e 3 e
∆Ecoulomb ( Z , Z − 1) = [ Z ( Z −1) − ( Z −1)( Z − 2)] = 2( Z −1)
5 4πε 0 R 5 4πε 0R
Z ~ A / 2 ; R = R0 A1/ 3 to find that ∆EC ( Z , Z − 1) ∝ A2 / 3
 Now lets measure mirror nuclei masse, assume that the
model holds and derive ∆ ECoulomb from the measurement.
 This should show an A2/3 dependence
 And the scaling factor should yield the correct R0 of 1.2 fm
 if the assumptions were right
“Charge
symmetry”
nn and pp
interaction same
(apart from
Coulomb)
More charge symmetry
• Energy Levels of two mirror nuclei for a number of excited states
• Corrected for n/p mass difference and Coulomb Energy
∆ Ecorrected
From Charge Symmetry to Charge
Independence
• Mirror nuclei showed that strong interaction is the same
for nn and pp.
• What about np ?
• Compare energy levels in “triplets” with same A,
different number of n and p. e.g.
22 22 22
10 Ne 11 Na 12 Mg
• If we find the same energy levels for the same spin
states  Strong interaction is the same for np as nn and
pp.
Charge Independence
∆ Ecorrected
• Same spin/parity states
should have the same
energy.
• Yes: np=nn=pp
• Note: Far more states in
11 Na. Why?
22
• Because it has more np

pairs then the others
• np pairs can be in any
Spin-Space configuration
• pp or nn pairs are
excluded from the totally
symmetric ones by Herr
Pauli
• Note also that 22 11 Na has
the lowest (most bound) 22
Ne
state, remember for the 10
22
12 Mg
deuteron on next page
22
11 Na
Charge Independence
• We have shown by measurement that:
– If we correct for n/p mass difference and Coulomb interaction, then
energy levels in nuclei are unchanged under n  p
– and we must change nothing else! I.e. spin and space wavefunctions
must remain the same!
• Conclusion: strong two-body interaction same for pp, pn
and nn if nucleons are in the same quantum state.
• Beware of the Pauli exclusion principle! eg why do we have
bound state of pn but not pp or nn?
– because the strong force is spin dependent and the most strongly
bound spin-space configurations (deuteron) are not available to nn
or pp. It’s Herr Pauli again!
– Just like 22 11 Na on the previous triplet level schema
Volume and Surface Term
• We now have all we need to trust that we can
apply the liquid drop model to a nucleus
– constant density
– same binding energy for all constituents
• Volume term: BVolume (A ) = +aA
• Surface term:
BSurface (A ) = −bA 2/ 3
• Since we are building a phenomenological model
in which the coefficients a and b will be
determined by a fit to measured nuclear binding
energies we must inlcude any further terms we
may find with the same A dependence together
with the above
Asymmetry Term
• Neutrons and protons are spin ½ fermions  obey
Pauli exclusion principle.
• If all other factors were equal nuclear ground state
would have equal numbers of n & p.
neutrons protons Illustration

 n and p states with same spacing ∆ .
 Crosses represent initially occupied
states in ground state.

 If three protons were turned into
neutrons
 the extra energy required would be 3×3
∆.
 In general if there are Z-N excess protons
over neutrons the extra energy is ((Z-

N)/2)2 ∆ . relative to Z=N.
 But how big is ∆ ?
Asymmetry Term
• Assume:
– p and n form two independent, non-interacting
gases occupying their own square Fermi wells
– kT << ∆
– so we can neglect kT and assume T=0
– This ought to be obvious as nuclei don’t
suddenly change state on a warm summers day!
– Nucleons move non-relativistically (check later if
this makes sense)
Asymmetry Term
• From stat. mech. density of states in 6d phase space = 1/h3
4π p 2 dpV
dN particle = 3
here Nparticle could be the number of protons or neutrons
h
• Integrate up to pf to get total number of protons Z (or
Neutrons N), & Fermi Energy (all states filled up to this energy
level). 4
Z = (4π V / 3h 3 ) pF 3 and V = π R03 A
3
1/ 3 2 2/3
h Z 2 h Z
PF = (3 / 4π ) 2/3
  and E = p ⇒ EF = (3 / 4π ) 4/3
 
R0  A  2m 2mR02  A
EF
• Change variables
dN / dp p  E to find avg. E ∫ E 3/ 2 dE
dN / dE = = const ⋅ E1/ 2 < E >= 0
EF
= (3 / 5) EF
dp / dE
These are all standard stat. mech. results!
∫
0
E1/ 2 dE
Asymmetry Term
 Compute total energy of all protons by Z*<E>
call this K
2 2/3
3 h Z 
P
ETotal = Z EP = (3 / 4π ) 4/3
2
Z 
5 2mR0  A 
 Use the above to compute total energy of Z protons and N
neutronsK
ETotal =  Z 5/ 3 + N 5/ 3  change variables from (Z,N,A)
A2 / 3 to (y,A) with y=N-Z
KA5/ 3
ETotal = 2 / 3 5 3 (1 − y / A)5/ 3 + (1 + y / A)5 / 3 where
 y/A is a small number (ε
A 2
KA
ETotal = 5 3 (1 − ε )5/ 3 + (1 + ε )5 / 3 
2
Binomial expansion keep lowest term in y/A
•
−2 3 21 35 ( N − Z )2 note! linear terms cancel

ETotal = 2 KA + K ( N − Z ) 2
9 A ∆ETotal ( Fermi − Gas ) = const *
This terms is only proportional to volume
A
comes from a fit of the
(A). It has already been captured by the
SEMF to measurements
Volume term of the liquid drop aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
model
analytical ≈ 24 MeV
Asymmetry term
• From the Fermi Gas model we learn
that
– due to the fermionic nature of p and n
we loose in binding energy if the
nucleus deviates from N=Z ( N − Z ) 2
BAsymmetry (N ,Z ) = −c
A
• The Asymmetry term:
• Observations:
• Nuclei with even number of n
or even number of p more
Pairing Term
tightly bound then with odd
numbers. See figure Neutron separation energy
• Only 4 stable o-o nuclei but [MeV] in Ba isotopes
153 stable e-e nuclei.
• p energy levels are Coulomb
shifted wrt n  small overlap 56+N
56 Ba
of wave functions between n
and p.
• Two p or two n in same energy
level with opposite values of jz
have AS spin state
 forced into sym spatial w.f.
 maximum overlap
 maximum binding energy
because of short range
attraction.
Neutron number
Note: this only holds for nn and pp, not for
p.  We don’t have a preference for even A
Pairing Term
• Measure that the Pairing effect smaller for larger A
• Phenomenological* fit to A dependence gives A
) -1/2
δ
BPairing (A ) = − 1/ 2
A
δ
Note: If you want to plot binding
e-e +ive energies versus A it is often best
to use odd A only as for these the
e-o 0 pairing term does not appear
o-o -ive *) For an even more insightful
explanation of the A
dependence read the book by
Jelley
Semi Empirical Mass Formula
• Put everything together:
(N − Z ) Z 2
δ 2
B ( N , Z ) = aA − bA 2/3
−c − d 1/ 3 − 1/ 2
A A A
Volume Surface Asymmetry Coulomb Pairing
Term Term Term Term Term
 Lets see how all of these assumptions fit reality

 And find out what the constants are
 Note: we went back to the simpler Z2 instead of
Z*(Z-1)
Binding Energy vs. A for beta-stable odd-A nuclei
Fit parameters
Iron in MeV
a 15.56
Not smooth because Z
not smooth function of A b 17.23
c 23.285
d 0.697
δ +12 (o-o)
δ 0 (o-e)
δ -12 (e-e)
• Conclusions
– Only makes sense for A≥20
– Good fit for large A (good to <1%) in most
places.
– Deviations are interesting  shell effects.
– Coulomb term constant agrees with calculation.
– Explains the valley of stability (see next lecture).
– Explains energetics of radioactive decays, fission
and fusion.
Nuclear Shell Model
• Potential between nucleons can be studied by
studying bound states (pn, ppn, pnn, ppnn) or by
scattering cross sections: np -> np pp
-> pp nD -> nD pD -> pD
• If had potential could solve Schrod. Eq. Don’t
know precise form but can make general
approximation
• 3d Finite Well with little r-dependence (except at
edge of well)
• Almost spherically symmetric (fusion can be
modeled as deformations but we’ll skip)
• N-N interactions are limited (at high A) due to
Pauli exclusion. p + n -> p’ + n’ only if state is
available
Infinite Radial Well
• Radial part of Scrod Eq
 2 d 2 u  2 l ( l + 1 ) 
− + V ( r ) + u = E u
2 m d r2  2 m r 2 
u (r ) ≡ r R (r ) P ( r ) = 4 πu 2
• Easy to solve if l=0
2 πn p 2 ( k ) 2
( h n) 2
u = s i nk r k = E = = =
2 a 2 m 2 m 8 m a2
• For L>0, angular momentum term goes to infinity at r=0.

Reduces effective wavelength, giving higher energy
• Go to finite well. Wave function extends a bit outside well giving
longer effective wavelength and lower energy (ala 1D square
wells)
• In nuceli, potential goes to infinity at r=0 (even with L=0) as that
would be equivalent to nucleon “inside” other nucleon
Angular part
• If V(r) then can separate variables ψ (r,θ ,φ ) = R(r)Y( θ ,φ ) have
spherical harmonics for angular wave function
• Angular momentum then quantized like in Hydrogen (except
that L>0 for n=1, etc)
L 2ψ = l( l + 1 )  2ψ L Z ψ = m ψ
l = 0 ,1 , 2  m = − l  l n = r − q u a n # t u m
• Energy doesn’t depend on m
• Energy increases with increasing n (same l)
• Energy increases with increasing l (same n)
• If both n,l vary then use experimental observation to determine
lower energy
• Energy will also depend on strong magnetic coupling between
nucleons
• Fill up states separately for p,n
L,S,J Coupling: Atoms vs Nuclei
• ATOMS: If 2 or more electrons, Hund’s rules:
• Maximise total S for lowest E (S=1 if two)
• Maximise total L for lowest E (L=2 if 2 P)
• Energy split by total J (J=3,2,1 for S=1,L=2)
• NUCLEI: large self-coupling. Plus if 2 p (or 2 n) then will anti-align

giving a state with J=0, S=0, L=0
leftover “odd” p (or n) will have two possible
J=L+½ or J = L – ½
higher J has lower energy
if there are both an odd P and an odd n (which is very rare in stable)
then add up Jn + Jp
• Atom called LS coupling nuclei called jj
• Note that magnetic moments add differently as different g-factor for
p,n
Spin Coupling in Nuclei
• All nucleons in valence shell have same J
• Strong pairing causes Jz antiparallel (3 and -3)
spin wavefunction = antisymmetric space
wavefunction = symmetric
• This causes the N-N to be closer together and increases
the attractive force between them
• e-e in atoms opposite as repulsive force
• Can also see in scattering of polarized particles
• Even N, even Z nuclei. Total J=S=L=0 as all n,p paired off
• Even N, odd Z or odd N, even Z. nuclear spin and parity
determined by unpaired nucleon
• Odd N, odd Z. add together unpaired n,p
• Explains ad hoc pairing term in mass formula
Energy Levels in Nuclei
• Levels in ascending order (both p,n)
State n L degeneracy(2j+1) sum
1S1/2 1 0 2 2***
1P3/2 1 1 4 6
1P1/2 1 1 2 8***
1D5/2 1 2 6 14
2S1/2 2 0 2 16
1D3/2 1 2 4 20***
1F7/2 1 3 8 28***
2P3/2 2 1 4 32
1F5/2 1 3 6 38
2P1/2 2 1 2 40
1G9/2 1 4 10 50***
*** “magic” number is where there is a large energy gap between a

filled shell and the next level. More tightly bound nuclei. (all filled
subshells are slightly “magic”)
Magic Numbers
• Large energy gaps between some filled shells and next (unfilled)
shell give larger dE/A and more made during nucleosnthesis in
stars
# protons #neutrons
2 He 2 He-4
6 C 6 C-12
8 O 8 O-16
20 Ca 20
28 Ni 28 Cr-52(24,28)
50 Sn 50 Ni-78
82 Pb 82
126
136
• Ni-78 (2005) doubly magic. While it is unstable, it is the much

neutron rich.
• Usually more isotopes if p or n are magic. Sn has 20 isotopes, 10 of
which are stable
Nuclear Magnetic Moments
• Protons and neutrons are made from quarks and gluons. Their
magnetic moment is due to their spin and orbital angular
momentum
   µN   e 
µ = µ L + µS = ( g l L + g S S ) µN =
 2 m p
• The g-factors are different than electrons. orbital, p=1 and n=0 as
the neutron doesn’t have charge
• spin, g for proton is 5.6 and for neutron is -3.8 (compared to -2 for
the electron; sometimes just 2).
• A proton is made from 2 up and 1 down quark which have charge 2/3
and -1/3
• A neutron is made from 1 up and 2 down and has “more” negative
charge/moments
• No theory which explains hadronic magnetic moments
• orbital and spin magnetic moments aren’t aligned, need to repeat
the exercise in atoms (Zeeman effect) to get values for the z-
component of the moment
Nuclear Cross Sections
• Definition of Cross Section
– Why its useful.
• Breit-Wigner Resonances
• Rutherford Scattering
Cross-Sections
• Why concept is important
– Learn about dynamics of interaction
and/or constituents (cf Feynman’s
watches).
– Needed for practical calculations.
• Experimental Definition
• How to calculate σ
– Fermi Golden Rule
– Breit-Wigner Resonances
– QM calculation of Rutherford Scattering
Definition of σ
• a+bx
• Effective area for reaction to
occur is σ N (0) particles type a/unit
a
time hit target b
Nb atoms b/unit volume
Beam a
Number /unit area= Nb dx
Na Probability interaction = σ
Nbdx
dNa=-Na Nb dx σ
dx
Na(x)=Na(0) exp(-x/λ ) ; λ =1/
(N b σ )
Reaction Rates
• Na beam particles/unit volume, speed v
• Flux F= Na v
• Rate/target b atom R=Fσ
• Thin target x<<λ : R=(NbT) F σ Total
• This is total cross section. Can also define

differential cross sections, as a function of
reaction product, energy, transverse
momentum, angle etc.
• dR(a+bc+d)/dE=(NbT) F dσ (a+bc+d) /dE
Breit-Wigner Line Shape
• Start with NR Schrödinger equation:
∂ψ ∞
i = H ψ ;ψ (t ) = ∑ an (t ) exp(− iEn t /  )ϕ n
dt n= 0
ia n exp(− iEnt / ) ϕ n + an En exp(− iEn t / ) ϕ n= ∑ am H exp(− iEm t /  ) ϕ n
m
∫ φm φnd r = δ nm H mn = ∫ φm Hφn d 3 r
* 3 *
X by φ ∗ n and integrate ;
ia n exp(− iE n t / ) + a n E n exp(− iE n t / ) = ∑ a m H mn exp(− iE m t /  )

m
a (t ) =
Start in state m  exponential decay
m exp(− Γt / 2 )
2
am (t ) = exp(− Γt / )
-2
ia n = H mn exp{[− i(En − Em ) − Γ / 2]t /  }
t
ian (t ) = ∫ dt H mn exp[− i(En − Em ) − Γ / 2]t / 
0
t
 H m n exp[− i(En − Em ) − Γ / 2]t /  
an ( t ) =  
 − i ( En − Em ) − Γ / 2 0
For t > >  / Γ
H mn
an ( t ) =
i ( En − Em ) + Γ / 2
2
-3
2 H mn
an ( t ) =
( Em − En ) 2 + Γ 2 / 4
2 2π 2
an ( t ) = H mn P(Em − En )
Γ
Normalised Breit-Wigner line

shape
Γ 1
P ( Em − En ) =
2π ( E − E )2 + Γ 2
m n 4
Q: where have you seen this shape

before?
We will see this many times in NP
and PP.
Breit-Wigner Resonance
• Important in atomic,
nuclear and particle
physics.
• Uncertainty relationship ∆E ∆t ~ 
∆E ∆t ~ 
• Determine lifetimes of
states from width.
• , Γ =F
WHM;
∆E ∆t ~ 
τ ~ /Γ
Fermi Golden Rule
• Want to be able to calculate
reaction rates in terms of matrix
elements of H.
• Warning: We will use this many
times to calculate σ but
derivation not required for
exams, given here for
completeness.
Discrete  Continuum
• Decays to a channel i (range of states
n). Density of states ni(E). Assume
narrow resonance
2π 2
Pi = ∫ H i 0 n i (E)P(E − E0 )dE
Γ
2π 2
Pi = H i 0 n i ( E0 )
Γ
Γi Γ
Pi = ; R Total = ; R i = Pi R Total
Γ 
Γi 2π 2
Ri = = H i 0 n i ( E0 )
 
Cross Section
• Breit Wigner cross section.
• Definition of σ and flux F:
R = Fσ
−1 / 2 
ψ =V exp(ik .r )
F = V −1 v
V 2
n( k ) = 3
4πk
( 2π )
(k) 2
dE V 4πk 2
E= ; = v n( E ) =
2m dk ( 2π )3 v
Breit-Wigner Cross
2 Γf
Section
H 01
2
Γf
R = ao ( t ) =
 (E1 − E0 )2 + Γ 2 / 4 
2
Γi (E) = 2π H10 n(E)
1 1 Γi ( E1 ) Γf
R=
2π n(E) (E1 − E0 )2 + Γ 2 / 4
• Combine rate, flux & density states 

 V  ( 2π ) v  1
3
Γi ( E1 ) Γf
σ =  
 v  V 4πk 2  2π ( E1 − E0 )2 + Γ 2 / 4
Breit-Wigner Cross
Section
π Γ i Γf
σ= 2 2 2
k (E1 − E0 ) + Γ / 4
n+ 16
O
17
O
Low Energy Resonances
• n + Cd total
cross section.
• Cross section
scales σ ~ 1/E1/2
at low E.
• B-W: 1/k2 and
Γ ~n(E)~k
Rutherford Scattering 1
Z1Z 2α e2
V (r ) = ; α= ; = c = 1
r 4π 0εc
      
ψi = V −1 / 2
exp(ik i .r ) ; ψ f = V −1 / 2
exp(ik f .r ) q = ki − kf
−1    Z1Z 2α    3
H fi = V ∫ exp(ik i .r )  exp(− ik f .r )d r
 r 

−1 exp(iq.r ) 3
H fi = V Z1Z 2α ∫ d r
r
−1 exp( iqr cosθ ) 2

H fi = V Z1Z 2 2π α∫ r dr d cosϑ
r
−1 exp( iqr ) − exp( − iqr )
H fi = V Z1Z 2 2π α∫ 2
r 2dr
iqr
xV(r ); exp(− r / a ) a → ∞
Z 1 Z 2 2π α
∫
−1
H fi = V exp(−1 / a + iq )r − exp(−1 / a − iq )r dr
iq
−1 Z1Z 2 2π α 1 1 
H fi = V  − 1 / a + iq − − 1 / a − iq 
iq  
Rutherford Scattering
2π dn
3
2
• Fermi Golden Rule: R= H fi
 dEf
dn 2 V dΩ dn dn dp dp
= 4πp 3 ; = ; = 1/ v
dp h 4π dE dp dE dE
p 2V
n( E ) = dΩ ; ( h = 2π = 2π )
v ( 2π ) 3
σ = R / F ; F = V −1 v
2
dσ 2π Z1Z 2 4π α p 2 V V
=
dΩ  Vq 2 v( 2π )3 v
dσ 4 p 2 ( Z1 Z 2α ) 2
=
dΩ v 2q 4
  2
q = (p i −pf ) = 2p 2 (1 − cosθ ) = 4p 2 sin 2 (ϑ / 2)
2
pi
pf
ϑ
dσ ( Z 1 Z 2α ) 2
=
dΩ 4 p 2 v 2 sin 4 (ϑ / 2)
Compare with experimental data

at low energy
Q: what changes at high energy ?
Low Energy Experiment
• Scattering of α on Au & Ag  agree with
calculation assuming point nucleus
dN/dcos
θ
Sin4(θ /2)
Higher Energy
Electron - Gold
• Deviation from
Rutherford
scattering at
higher energy 
determine charge
distribution in the
nucleus.
• Form factors is F.T.
of charge
distribution.
Induced Fission
(required energy)
∆ Esep ≈6MeV per nucleon for heavy nuclei

Nucleus Potential Energy
during fission [MeV]
Very slow n
A=
238
∆ Ef=Energy
Neutron
needed to
penetrate fission
barrier
immediately ≈6-
8MeV
Neutron
s
Induced Fission
(required energy)
• Spontaneous fission rates low due to high coulomb

barrier (6-8 MeV @ A≈240)
• Slow neutron releases ∆ Esep as excitation into nucleus
• Excited nucleus has enough energy for immediate
fission if Ef - ∆ Esep >0
• We call this “thermal fission” (slow, thermal neutron
needed)
• But due to pairing term …
• even N nuclei have low ∆ Esep for additional n
• odd N nuclei have high ∆ Esep for additional n
•  Fission yield in n -absorption varies dramatically
between odd and even N
Induced Fission
(fissile nuclei)
• ∆ Esep (n,238 92 U) = 4.78 MeV only 

• Fission of 238 U needs additional kinetic energy from
neutron En,kin >Ef-∆ Esep ≈1.4 MeV
• We call this “fast fission” (fast neutrons needed)
• Thermally fissile nuclei, En,kin thermal =0.1eV @ 1160K
– 233 92 U, 235 92 U, 239 94 Pu, 241 94 Pu
• Fast fissile nuclei En,kin =O(MeV)
– 232 90 Th, 238 92 U, 240 94 Pu, 242 94 Pu
• Note: all Pu isotopes on earth are man made
• Note: only 0.72% of natural U is 235 U
Induced Fission
(Reminder: stages of the process up to a few seconds after fission event)
t=0
<# prompt n>

ν prompt =2.5
t≈10-14 s
t>10-10 s
<n-delay> <# delayed n>

τ d=few s ν d=0.006
Induced Fission
(the fission process)
Energy balance of 235

92 U induced thermal fission MeV:
– Prompt (t<10-10 s):
• Ekin ( fragments) 167
• Ekin (prompt n) 5  3-12 from X+nY+γ
• E(prompt γ ) 6
• Subtotal: 178 (good for power production)
– Delayed (10-10 <t<):
• Ekin (e from β -decays) 8
• E(γ following β -decay) 7
• Subtotal: 15 (bad, spent fuel heats up)
– Neutrinos: 12 (invisible)
– Grand total: 205
Induced Fission
(n -induced fission crossections (n,f) )
• 238 92 U does nearly no n -induced fission below En,kin ≈1.4 MeV

• 235 92 U does O(85%) fission starting at very low En,kin
• Consistent with SEMF-pairing term of 12MeV/√A≈0.8 MeV
between
– odd-even= 235
92 U and even-even= 238
92 U
unresolved, narrow
235
unresolved, narrow
238
U
resonances
resonances
n -Energy
Induced Fission
neutron absorbtion probabilit per 1 µ m ((n,f) and (n,γ ) probabilities in natural Uranium)
fission neutrons
energy range of
“good 238
92 U(n,γ )
235 ” “bad-238”
238
92 U(n,γ )
235
U(n,f)
92 238
92 U(n,γ ) 238
92 U(n,f)
“good
238 ”
235
92 U(n,γ )
235
92 U(n,f)
“bad-235”
235
92 U(n,γ )
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in fast
thermal
Induced Fission
(a simple bomb)
 Uranium mix
 235 U:238 U =c:(1-c)
 ρ
nucl (U)=4.8*10 nuclei
28
m -3 σ tot = c σ 235
tot + (1 + c )σ 238
tot
– average
 mean free path for fission λn:= 1 (ρnucl σ tot ) ≈ 3 cm
n crossection:
 mean time between collisions =1.5*10-9 s @
 Ekin (n)=2MeV
Simplify to c=1 (the bomb mixture)
 prob(235 U(nprompt ,f)) @ 2MeV ≈ 18% (see slide 8)
 rest of n scatter, loosing Ekin  prob(235 U(n,f)) grows
 most probable #collisions before 235 U(n,f) = 6 (work
it out!)
 6 random steps of λ =3cm  lmp =√6*3cm≈7cm in
t =10 s -8
Induced Fission
(a simple bomb)
• After 10-8 s 1n is replaced with ν =2.5 n, ν =average prompt

neutron yield of this fission process
• Let probability of new n inducing fission before it is lost = q
• (others escape or give radiative capture)
• Each n produces on average (ν q-1) new such n in tp=10-8 s
(ignoring delayed n as bombs don’t last for seconds!)
n (t + δ t ) = n (t ) + (ν q − 1) ⋅ n (t ) ⋅ (δ t t mp )
dn (t ) ν q − 1
lim ⇒ = n (t )
δ t →0 dt t mp
(ν q −1) t
t mp
solved by: n (t ) = n (0)e
 if ν q>1  exponential growths of neutron number
 For 235 U, ν =2.5  if q>0.4 you get a bomb
Induced Fission
(a simple bomb)
• If object dimensions << lmp =7 cm

 most n escape through surface
 ν q << 1
• If Rsphere (235 U)≥8.7cm ⇔ M(235 U)≥52 kg
ν q=1
 explosion in < tp=10-8 s
 little time for sphere to blow apart
 significant fraction of 235 U will do
fission
Fission Reactors
(not so simple)
• Q: What happens to a 2 MeV fission neutron in a block of
natural Uranium (c=0.72%)?
• A: In order of probability
– Inelastic 238 U scatter (slide 8) 238
92 U(n,γ )
– Fission of 238 U (5%)

– rest is negligible U(n,γ )
238
92
92 U(n,f)
235
238
92 U(n,γ ) 238
92 U(n,f)
235
92 U(n,γ )
235
92 U(n,f)
235
92 U(n,γ )
• as Eneutron decreases via inelastic scattering

– σ (238 92 U(n,γ )) increases and becomes resonant
– σ (238 92 U(n,f)) decreases rapidly and vanishes below 1.4 MeV
– only remaining chance for fission is σ (235 92 U(n,f)) which is much smaller then
σ (238 92 U(n,γ ))
• Conclusion: piling up natural U won’t make a reactor because
n get “eaten” by (n,γ ) resonances. I said it is not SO simple
Fission Reactors
(two ways out)
• Way 1: Thermal Reactors

– bring neutrons to thermal energies without
absorbing them = moderate them
– use low mass nuclei with low n-capture crossection
as moderator. (Why low mass?)
– sandwich fuel rods with moderator and coolant
layers
– when n returns from moderator its energy is so low
that it will predominantly cause fission in 235 U
Fission Reactors
(two ways out)
• Way 2: Fast Reactors

– Use fast neutrons for fission
– Use higher fraction of fissile material,
typically 20% of 239 Pu + 80% 238 U
– This is self refuelling (fast breeding) via:
• 238
92 U+n 
239
92 U+γ
•  239
93 Np + e- + ν e
•  239 94 Pu + e¯ + ν e
– Details about fast reactors later

Fission Reactors
(Pu fuel)
• 239Pu fission crossection slightly “better” then 235U
• Chemically separable from 238U (no centrifuges)
• More prompt neutrons ν (239Pu)=2.96
• Fewer delayed n & higher n-absorbtion, more later
Fission Reactors
(Reactor control)
• For bomb we found:

– “boom” if: ν q > 1 where ν was number of prompt n
– we don’t want “boom”  need to get rid of most prompt n
• Reactors use control rods with large n-capture
crossection σ nc like B or Cd to regulate q
• Lifetime of prompt n:
– O(10-8 s) in pure 235 U
– O(10-3 s) in thermal reactor (“long” time in moderator)
• not “long” enough Far too fast to control
• … but there are also delayed neutrons
Fission Reactors
(Reactor control)
• Fission products all n -rich  all β - active
• Some β - decays have excited states as daughters
• These can directly emit n (see table of nuclides, green at bottom of
curve)
 several sources of delayed n
 typical lifetimes τ ≈O(1 sec)
 Fraction ν d ≈ 0.6%
Delayed Neutron Precursor Groups

for Thermal Fission in 235-U
Delayed Average
Half-Life Neutron Energy
Energy
Group (sec) Fraction (MeV)
off syllabus
1 55.7 0.00021 0.25
2 22.7 0.00142 0.46
3 6.2 0.00127 0.41
4 2.3 0.0026 0.45
5 0.61 0.00075 0.41
6 0.23 0.00027 -
Fission Reactors
(Reactor control)
• Since fuel rods “hopefully” remain in reactor

longer then 10-2 s  must include delayed n
fraction ν d into our calculations
• New control problem:
– keep (ν +ν d)q = 1
– to accuracy of < 0.6%
– at time scale of a few seconds
• Doable with mechanical systems but not easy
Fission Reactors
(Reactor cooling)
• As q rises during control, power produced in reactor
rises 
– we cool reactor and drive “heat engine” with coolant
– coolant will often also act as moderator
• Coolant/Moderator choices:
Material State σ n-abs reduce En chemistry other coolant
H 2O liquid small best reactive cheap good
off syllabus
D2O liquid none 2nd best reactive rare good
C solid mild medium reactive cheap medium

CO press.
gas mild medium passive cheap ok
Fission Reactors
(Thermal Stability)
• Want dq/dT < 0

– Many mechanical influences via thermal expansion
– Change in n-energy spectrum
– Doppler broadening of 238 U(n,γ ) resonances  large
negative contribution to dq/dT due to increased n
-absorbtion in broadened spectrum
– Doppler broadening of 239 Pu(n,f) in fast reactors gives
positive contribution to dq/dt
– Chernobyl No 4. had dq/dT >0 at low power
– … which proved that you really want dq/dT < 0
Fission Bombs
(fission fuel properties)
Isotope Half-lifea Bare critical Spontaneous Decay heat
mass fission
neutrons
years kg, Alpha- (gm-sec)-1 watts kg-1
phase
Pu-238 87.7 10 2.6x103 560
Pu-239 24,100 10 22x10-3 1.9
Pu-240 6,560 40 0.91x103 6.8
Pu-241 14.4 10 49x10-3 4.2
Pu-242 376,000 100 1.7x103 0.1
Am-241 430 100 1.2 114
a. By Alpha-decay, except Pu-241, which is by Beta-decay to Am-241.
• ideal bomb fuel = pure 239Pu

Fission Bombs
(where to get Pu from? Sainsbury’s?)
Grade Isotope
Pu-238 Pu-239 Pu-240 Pu-241a Pu-242
Super-grade - .98 .02 - -

Weapons-gradeb .00012 .938 .058 .0035 .00022
Reactor-gradec .013 .603 .243 .091 .050
MOX-graded .019 .404 .321 .178 .078
FBR blankete - .96 .04 - -
a. Pu-241 plus Am-241.

c. Plutonium recovered from low-enriched d. Plutonium recovered from 3.64% fissile
uranium pressurized-water reactor fuel that plutonium MOX fuel produced from reactor-
has released 33 megawatt-days/kg fission grade plutonium and which has released 33
energy and has been stored for ten years MWd/kg fission energy and has been stored for
prior to reprocessing (Plutonium Fuel: An ten years prior to reprocessing (Plutonium Fuel:
Assessment (Paris:OECD/NEA, 1989) Table An Assessment(Paris:OECD/NEA, 1989) Table
12A). 12A).
Fission Bombs
(drawbacks of various Pu isotopes)
• 241
Pu : decays to 241 Am which gives very high energy
γ -rays  shielding problem
• 240
Pu : lots of n from spontaneous fission
• 238
Pu : α -decays quickly (τ 1/2 = 88 years)  lots of
heat conventional ignition explosives don’t like that!
• in pure 239 Pu bomb, the nuclear ignition is timed
optimally during compression using a burst of external
n  maximum explosion yield
• … but using reactor grade Pu, n from 240 Pu decays can
ignite bomb prematurely  lower explosion yield but
still very bad if you are holding it in your hand
• Reactor grade Pu mix has “drawbacks” but can
“readily” be made into a bomb.
Fission Bombs
(suspicious behaviour)
• Early removal of fission fuel
rods  need control of reactor
fuel changing cycle!
• Building fast breaders if you
have no fuel recycling plants
• Large high-E γ sources from
241
Am outside a reactor
• large n fluxes from 240 Pu
outside reactors very
penetrating  easy to spot
over long range
Plutonium isotope
composition as a function of
fuel exposure in a
pressurized-water reactor,
upon discharge.
Fission Reactors
(Thermal vs. Fast)
• Fast reactors
– need very high 239 Pu concentration   Bombs
– very compact core   hard to cool   need high
Cp coolant like liq.Na or liq. NaK-mix   don’t like
water & air &  must keep coolant circuit molten & 
high activation of Na
– High coolant temperature (550C)  good thermal
efficiency
– Low pressure in vessel   better safety
– can utilise all 238 U via breeding   141 times more
fuel
– High fuel concentration + breading   Can operate
for long time without rod changes
– Designs for 4th generation molten Pb or gas cooled
fast reactors exist. Could overcome the Na problems
Fission Reactors
(Thermal vs. Fast)
• Thermal Reactors
– Many different types exist
• BWR = Boiling Water Reactor
• PWR = Pressure Water Reactor
• BWP/PWR exist as
– LWR = Light Water Reactors (H2O)
– HWR = Heavy Water Reactors (D2O)
• (HT)GCR = (High Temperature) Gas Cooled
Reactor exist as
– PBR = Pebble Bed Reactor
– other more conventional geometries
Fission Reactors
(Thermal vs. Fast)
• Thermal Reactors (general features)

– If moderated with D2O (low n-capture) 
 can burn natural U   now need for
enrichment (saves lots of energy!)
– Larger reactor cores needed   more
activation
– If natural U used  small burn-up time
  often need continuous fuel
exchange   hard to control
Fission Reactors
(Light vs. Heavy water thermal reactors)
• Light Water
–  it is cheap
–  very well understood chemistry
–  compatible with steam part of plant
– can not use natural uranium (too much n-
capture)   must have enrichment plant
  bombs
– need larger moderator volume   larger
core with more activation
– enriched U has bigger n-margin   easier
to control
Fission Reactors
(Light vs. Heavy water thermal reactors)
• Heavy Water
–  it is expensive
–  allows use of natural U
– natural U has smaller n-margin   harder to
control
– smaller moderator volume   less activation
– CANDU PWR designs (pressure tube reactors)
allow D2O moderation with different coolants
to save D2O
Fission Reactors
(PWR = most common power reactor)
• Avoid boiling   better control of moderation
• Higher coolant temperature   higher thermal efficiency
• If pressure fails (140 bar)   risk of cooling failure via boiling
 Steam raised in
secondary circuit 
 no activity in turbine
and generator
 Usually used with H2O 
 need enriched U
  Difficult fuel access 
long fuel cycle (1yr)
  need highly
enriched U
 Large fuel reactivity
variation over life cycle aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
Fission Reactors
(BWR = second most common power reactor)
• lower pressure then PWR (70 bar)   safer pressure vessel
•  simpler design of vessel and heat steam circuit
• primary water enters turbine   activation of tubine   no
access during operation (τ ½(16 N)=7s, main contaminant)
 lower temperature   lower
 efficiency
if steam fraction too large (norm.
18%)   Boiling crisis =
loss of cooling
Fission Reactors
(“cool” reactors)
Fission Reactors
(“cool” reactors)
• no boiling crisis
• no steam handling
• high efficiency 44%
• compact core
• low coolant mass
Fission Reactors
(enrichment)
• Two main techniques to separate 235U from 238U
in gas form UF6 @ T>56C, P=1bar
– centrifugal separation
• high separation power per centrifugal step
• low volume capacity per centrifuge
• total 10-20 stages to get to O(4%) enrichment
• energy requirement: 5GWh to supply a 1GW reactor with 1
year of fuel
– diffusive separation
• low separation power per diffusion step
• high volume capacity per diffusion element
• total 1400 stages to get O(4%) enrichment
• energy requirement: 240GWh = 10 GWdays to supply a
1GW reactor with 1 year of fuel
1-2 m
15-20 cm
O(70,000) rpm  Vmax ≈1,800 km/h = supersonic! & gmax =106g  difficult to buil
Fission Reactors
(enrichment)
Nuclear Fusion,as a source of stellar energy
In stars 12
C formation sets the stage for the entire nucleosynthesis of heavy
elements:
T ~ 6*10 K and ρ ~ 2*10 gcm
8 5 -3
α α 4
He + 4He ↔ 8Be
α 8
Be unstable
(τ ~ 10-16 s) Be
8
+ 4He ↔ 12
C
Large density helps to overcome the bottleneck caused by the absence of
stable nuclei with 8 nucleons.
Example: show that the nucleus 8be has a positive binding energy but is unstable
against the decay into two alpha particles.
The binding energy of 8Be: EB ( 84 Be) =  4 mn + 4 m1 H − m8 Be  c2
 1 4 
=  4 ( 1.008665u ) +4( 1.007825u) −8.005304u ( 931.5MeV )/u = MeV
56.5
EB / A = 7.06 MeV
The energy of the decay 8Be ⇒ two alpha particles:
EB ( 84 Be) =  m8 Be −2 m4 He  c 2 = 8.005304 u 2−( 4.002602) u(  931.5 MeV /) u = MeV
0.093
 4 2 
Because the energy of the decay 8Be ⇒ two alpha particles is positive, 8Be is
unstable (an important factor for the nucleosynthesis in the Universe).
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Multi-step processes of the formation of heavier elements
up to Fe.
Two key parameters: temperature (thermal energy is
sufficiently large to overcome Coulomb repulsion ) and
density (controls the frequency of collisions).
With increasing Z, the temperatures should also increase
to facilitate the reactions.
A massive star near the end C burning T ~ 6*108 K ρ ~ 2*105

of its lifetime has “onion gcm-3
ring” structure. Ne T ~ 1.2*109 K ρ ~ 4*106
burning gcm-3
O burning T ~ 1.5*109 K ρ ~ 107
gcm-3
Si burning T ~ 3*109 K ρ ~ 108
gcm-3
major ash: Fe
- the end of
exothermic
processes
Stability Issues (Stable Stars vs. Unstable Bombs)
Why are the stars stable (in contrast to the hydrogen bomb)?
In stars, the increase of temperature results in the increase of the pressure and
the subsequent increase of its size (think the ideal gas law).
The density becomes smaller, and the rate of thermonuclear reactions
decreases. This is the build-in negative feedback.
The carbon-nitrogen cycle:
7 N +γ
C + p → 13
12
6 10 7 y
Sirius A
13
7 N → 13 +
6 C +e +ν 7 min
7 N +γ
C + p → 14
13
6 10 6 y
carbon-
8 O +γ
N + p 613 →15
14
10 8 y
luminosity
Sun nitroge 7
red
n cycle 15
8 O → 15
7 N + e+
+ν 82 s
dwar 15
7 N + p → 12
6 C +2 He
4
10 5 y
f proto a “catalyst”
n The negative feedback works well for young
cycle stars. For more dense and old stars, the
T, K pressure increase is not sufficient to produce
a significant increase of volume (the matter
105 107 109
in such stars is not described by gas laws) –
and the thermonuclear explosion occurs!
This is the star explosion (supernova:
“carbon-nitrogen” bomb).
Explosive Nucleosynthesis (Elements Heavier than
Iron)
Explosive nucleosynthesis ⇒ Endothermic fusion
Elements heavier than iron are created (mostly) by

neutron capture. e-
s-process
(slow
neutron 56
capture): n 26 Fe 57
26 Fe 57
27 Co
The neutron is added to the nucleus and (later) converted into a proton by β decay;
this increases the atomic number by 1. Repetition of this process – progress up the
valley of stability.
n e-
r-process
(a succession
of rapid n 60
neutron
56
26 Fe 26 Fe 61
27 Co
captures on
iron seed
n
High nnuclei):
flux: fast neutron capture until the nuclear force is unable to bind an
extra neutron. Then, a beta decay occurs, and in the new chain the neutron
capture continues. This process is responsible for the creation of about half of
neutron-rich nuclei heavier than Fe.
These processes require energy, occur only at high densities &
temperatures (e.g., r-processes occur in core-collapse supernovae).
ummary
Abundance relative to Silicon (=106)
10-1
charged-particle mainly neutron

induced reaction capture reaction
Both occur during quiescent and explosive stages
of stellar evolution
involve mainly STABLE NUCLEI involve mainly UNSTABLE NUCLEI

α Decay Theory
• Consider 232 Th, Z=90, with radius of R=7.6 fm
• It alpha decays with Ea=4.08 MeV at r=
• But at R=7.6 fm the potential energy of the alpha would
be Eα ,pot =34 MeV if we believe:
e2 hc
E = Z1Z 2 which we really should!
4πε 0 hc R
• Question: How does the α escape from the Th
nucleus?
• Answer: by QM tunnelling
α Decay Theory
radial wave function in alpha
oscillatory ψ decay in 3 regions oscillatory ψ
I II III
Exponential
decay of ψ
total energy of α
r
nucleus inside barrier (negative small flux of real α

KE) r=t
potential energy of
α
r=R •see also Williams, p.85 to 89
QM Tunnelling through a square well
(the easy bit)
Potential :
V V=V0 Wave vector Ansatz:
Etot
hk = 2mEkin in regions I and III
V=0 r
r=0 r=t hK = 2m(V0 − Ekin ) in region II
I II III
Stationary Wavefunction Ansatz:
ψ I = exp(ikr ) + A exp(−ikrunit
) incoming oscillatory wave
reflected wave of amplitude A
ψ II = B exp( Kr ) + C exp(− Krtwo

) exponential decaying waves
of amplitude B and C
ψ III = D exp(ikrtransmitted
) oscillatory
wave of amplitude D 4 unknowns !
• Boundary condition for Ψ and dΨ /dx at r=0 and r=t give 4 equations
• for times such that Kt>>1 and approximating k≈K we get transmission probability:
T=|D|2~exp(-2Kt) [Williams, p.85]
α -decay
∆ Esep ≈6MeV per nucleon for heavy nuclei
∆ Ebind (42α )=28.3 MeV > 4*6MeV
Neutron Proton Alphas

s s
Tunnelling in α -decay
• Assume there is no recoil in the remnant nucleus
• Assume we can approximate the Coulomb potential by sequence
of many square wells of thickness ∆ r with variable height Vi
• Transmission probability is then product of many T factors where
the K inside T is a function of the potential: Rexit
2
N 2
− Ki ∆r
− ∫ k ( r ) dr
Ptrans = T 2 : lim ∏ e
h
h
=e R
∆r → 0
i = 0via: V(r)>E
• The region between R and Rexit is defined kin
• Inserting K into the above gives:

 2
Rexit

T = exp − ∫ 2m(V (r ) − Ekin ) dr  ≡ exp(−G )
2
•  h factor
We call G the Gamov R 
• Use the Coulomb potential for an a particle of charge Z1 and a nucleus of
charge Z2 for V(r)
Z1Z 2 e 2 2
Z1Z 2ethe latter defines the relation between
V (r ) = Ekin =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 Rexit
the exit radius and the alpha particles
kinetic energy
 2 Rexit 
inserted into:exp( −G ) = exp  − ∫ 2m(V (r ) − Ekin ) dr and Z1=2 gives
 h R 
1/ 2 R 1/ 2
2  mZ 2 e 
2 exit
G=   ∫ ( 1/ r − 1/ Rexit ) dr
h  2πε 0  R
substituting r = Rexit cos 2 ϑ dr = −2 Rexit cos ϑ sin ϑ dϑ
and r = Rexit ⇒ ϑ = 0 and r = R ⇒ ϑ = ϑ0
1/ 2 ϑ0 ϑ0
4  mZ 2 e 2
G=  ∫ ϑ dϑ where ∫ ϑ dϑ = (1/ 2) [ ϑ0 − sin ϑ0 cos ϑ 0 ]
1/ 2 2 2
 Rexit sin sin
h  2πε 0  0 0
• How can we simplify this ?
– for nuclei that actually do a-decay we know typical decay
energies and sizes
– Rtyp≈10 fm, Etyp ≈ 5 MeV, Ztyp ≈ 80
– Rexit,typ ≈ 60 fm >>Rtyp
– sincecos ϑ0 = R / Rexit ⇒ cos ϑ0 ≅ 0 ⇒ ϑ0 ≅ π / 2
1/ 2
π  mZe Rexit  2
G≈
• Inserting all this into G gives:  
4h  πε 0 
• And further expressing Rexit via Ekin gives:

1/ 2
2 Ze 2
e  mZ 
2 2
Rexit = ⇒ G≈  
4πε 0 Eα 4ε 0 h  2 Ekin 
α -decay Rates
• How can we turn the tunnelling probability into a decay rate?
• We need to estimate the “number of hits” that an α makes
onto the inside surface of a nucleus.
• Assume:
– the a already exists in the nucleus
– it has a velocity v0=(2Ekin /m)1/2
– it will cross the nucleus in ∆ t=2R/v0
–  it will hit the surface with a rate of ω 0=v0/2R
• Decay rate ω is then “rate of hits” x tunnelling probability
(2 Ekin / m) (2 Ekin / m)  −e  mZ  
2 2
1/ 2
ω= exp(−G ) = exp    
2R 2R  4ε 0 h  2 Ekin  
• Note: ω 0 is a very rough plausibility estimate!  Williamstells you
how to do it better but he can’t do it either!
α -decay experimental
tests
• Predict exponential decay rate proportional to (Ekin )1/2
• Agrees approximately with data for even-even nuclei.
• But angular momentum effects complicate the picture:
– Additional angular momentum barrier (as in atomic physics)
l (l + 1)(hc) 2
El =
– El is small compared to ECoulomb 2mc 2 r 2
– E.g. l=1, R=15 fm  El~0.05 MeV compared to
– Z=90  Ecoulomb ~17 MeV.
– but still generates noticeable extra exponential suppression.
• Spin (∆ J) and parity (∆ P) change from parent to daughter
∆ J=Lα ∆ P=(-1)L
α -decay
experimental
tests
• We expect:
(2 Ekin / m)  −e2  mZ 2 1/ 2 

ω= exp    
2R  4ε 0 h  2 Ekin  
 
ln(decay rate)
mred .,α − daughter

Z daughter / ≈ Zdaughter / Eα ,kin
Etot ,kin mα
Fermi β Decay Theory
• Consider simplest case:
n → pe −ν e + Q(782keV )
of β -decay, i.e. n decay
• At quark level: du+W or at quark level d → ue−ν e
followed by decay of p
virtual W to electron +
anti-neutrino n d
u
• this section is close to d u
Cottingham & u
Greenwood p.166 - ff d e-
• but also check that you
understand Williams p. W-
292 - ff ν( ) e
p
d
Fermi Theory d
n
u
u
u
• 4 point interaction d
– Energy of virtual W << mW  life time is negligible e-
– assume interaction is described by only a single number ν( ) e
– we call this number the Fermi constant of beta decay Gβ
– also assume that p is heavy and does not recoil (it is often
bound into an even heavier nucleus for other β -decays)
– We ignore parity non-conservation
H fi = ∫ψ e* ( r )ψ ν* ( r )ψ *p ( r ) Gβ ψ n ( r )d 3r
r r r r r r r
ψ e (r ) = V −1/ 2
exp(ik e.r ) ; ψν (r ) = V −1/ 2
exp(ikν .r ) ; q = k e + kν
r r
From nuclear observations we know : q ~ 1MeV / c R ~ 5 fm ⇒ q⋅ r ~ 1/ 40
rr
⇒ exp(iq .r ) ≈1
which is only applicable for ∆L = 0 as otherwise R can be larger ∆L =Ln −Lp
H fi = Gβ ∫ψ *p ( r)ψ n ( r) d3 r =G β H f which is just a number since n and p are at rest
Fermi Theory
 as we neglect nuclear recoil energy
 electron energy distribution is determined by density
of states
dne = 4π pe 2 dpe / h3 ; dnν = 4π pν 2 dpν / h3 ; n = ne nν
d 2 n = ( 4π pe 2 dpe / h3 ) ( 4π pν 2 dpν / h3 )
 but p and p
e ν or Ee and Eν are correlated to conserve
energy  we can not leave them both variable
E0 = total energy released in the decay =
E f = total energy of the final state
= mass deficit
= total kinetic energy + rest masses of the final state ⇒ Eν = E f − Ee
pν = Eν / c = ( E f − Ee ) / c ; ∂pν / ∂E f = 1/ c
d 2n 16π 2 2
= pe ( E
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in f − Ee ) 2
dE f dpe h 6 c 3
Fermi Theory  Kurie Plot
 FGR to get a decay rate and insert previous results:
2π 2 dn
R= H fi ⇒
h dE f
dR 2π 2 d2n
= H fi d 2n 16π 2 2
dPe h dE f dPe = 6 3 pe ( E f − Ee ) 2
dE f dpe h c
2π 2 16π
2
= H fi p e
2
( E f − E e ) 2
h h6c3
H fi = Gβ ∫ψ *p (r )ψ n (r )d 3r = G β H f
64π 4
= 7 3 Gβ H f pe 2 ( E f − Ee ) 2
hc
A dR
= I ( pe ) = Ape2 ( E f − Ee ) 2
dpe
I ( pe )
⇒ 2
= A( E f − Ee ) 2 let’s plot that from real data
pe
Electron Spectrum
• Observe electron kinetic energy
spectrum in tritium decay Simple Spectrum
• Implant tritium directly into a biased
Relative Intensity
silicon detector
• Observe internal ionisation (electron
hole pairs) generated from the emerging
electron as current pulse in the detector
• number of pairs proportional to electron
energy Ekin,e (keV)
• Observe continuous spectrum 
neutrino has to carrie the rest of the
energy
• End point of this spectrum is function of
neutrino mass
• But this form of spectrum is bad for
determining the endpoint accurately
Kurie Plot
• A plot of: I ( pe )
2
vs. Ee should be linear
pe
• …but it does not! Why?
Kurie-Plot
(I(p)/p2K(Z,p))1/2
• …because that’s off syllabus!
• But if you really must know …
• Electron notices Coulomb field of nucleus 
• Ψ e gets enhanced near to proton (nucleus)
• The lower Ee the bigger this effect
• We compensate with a “Fudge Factor” Ekin,e (keV)
scientifically aka “Fermi Function” K(Z,pe)
• Can be calculated but we don’t have means
to do so 
• We can’t integrate I(pe) to give a total rate
Selection Rules
• Fermi Transitions:
– eν couple to give spin Seν =0
– “Allowed transitions” Leν =0  ∆ Jnp=0.
• Gamow-Teller transitions:
– eν couple to give spin Seν =1
– “Allowed transitions” Leν =0  ∆ Jnp=0 or ±1
• “Forbidden” transitions
  
exp(
– See arguments oniq .r ) =
slide 151 + (iq.r ) + O ( q.r ) 2 + ...
– Higher order terms correspond to non-zero ∆ L. Therefore suppressed
depending on (q.r)2L
– Usual QM rules give: ∆ Jnp=Leν +Seν
Electron Capture e + p →n+ ν e
−
• capture atomic electron

• Can compete with β + decay.
• Use FGR again and first look at matrix element
R
H fi = Gβ ∫ψ e ( r )ψ p ( r )ψ n* ( r )ψ ν* ( r ) d 3 r
0
 For “allowed” transitions we consider Ψ e and Ψ ν const.
R
H fi = Gβψ e (0)ψ ν (0) ∫ψ p ( r )ψ n* ( r ) d 3 r
0
 Only le=0 has non vanishing Ψ e(r=0) and for ne=1 this is
largest. 3/ 2 rr
2
 Zme e  exp(ik .r ) 1
ψ e (0) = π −1/ 2
 2 
;ψν (r ) = ⇒ ψ ν (0) =
 4πε 0 h  V V
2 3 R
G  Zme e  2
H F = ∫ψn* (r )ψ p (r )d 3r
2 β 2
H fi =  2 
Hf
π V  4πε 0 h  0
Electron Capture
• Density of states easier now
– only a 2-body final state (n,ν )
– n is assumed approximately stationary  only ν matters
–  final state energy = Eν
dNν 4π q 2 dNν dNν dqν

= 3 V ; = ; Eν = qν c
dqν h dEν dqν dEν
dNν 4π qν2
= 3 V
dEν hc
 apply Fermi’s Golden Rule AGAIN:
2π 2 dN f
ω= H fi
h dE f
3
16π E  Zme e 
2 2 2
ω =G M 2
β
2

ν

h 4 c 3  4πε 0 h2 
F
Anti-neutrino Discovery
• Inverse Beta Decay
β - decay : n → pe −ν e ; inverse β - decay :ν e p → ne +
• Assume again no recoil on n
• But have to treat positron fully relativistic
• Same matrix elements as β -decay because
all wave functions assume to be plane waves
2 2
H fi = G H F V −2
2
β
• Fermi’s Golden Rule (only positron moves in
final state!)
2π 2 dN + 2π 2 2 dN e +
ω= H fi e
= Gβ H F
h dEe+ h dEe +
Anti-neutrino Discovery
dN e+ 4π p 2V dpe +
• Phase space factor: =
dEe+ h3 dEe +
dpe+
E = p c +m c
• Neglect neutron recoil: 2
e+
2
e+
2 2
e+
4
; = Ee+ / pc 2
dEe+
• Combine with FGR

2π 2 2 4π pe Ee
ω= Gβ H F
h h3c 2V
F = c /V ; R = Fσ
2 16π 3
pe Ee
σ = Gβ H F
2
h 4c3
The Cowan & Reines Experiment
• for inverse β -decay @ Eν ~ 1MeV  σ ~10-47 cm2
• Pauli’s prediction verified by Cowan and Reines.
ν e p → ne+ (on protons from the water)

e + e − → 2γ (prompt : shortly after inverse beta decay)
n + Cd → several γ (9MeV,delayed coincidence)
Liquid Scint. PMT

1 GW ν -beam
Nuclear H20+CdCl2
Reactor
Liquid Scint. PMT
original proposal
wanted to use a all this well under ground
bomb instead! Shielding to reduce cosmic rays!
Parity Definitions
r r µ [ψ (rr )] = ψ (−rr )
r → −r ; P
µP 2 [ψ (rr )] = ψ (rr ) ⇒ P = Eignevalues = ±1
i
r µ (vr ) = −vr ;
let v be a true vector : P
r r r r r
let L = r x p be an axial vector : P ( L ) = L µ
r r µ ( s) = s
let s = v1.v2 be a true scalar : P
r ur µ (O) = −O
let O = v .L be a pseudo scalar : P
1
• Parity transforms from a left to a right handed co-ordinate system
and vice versa
• Eigenvalues of parity are +/- 1.
• If parity is conserved: [H,P]=0  eigenstates of H are eigenstates
of parity  all observables have a defined parity
• If Parity is conserved all result of an experiment should be
unchanged by parity operation
• If parity is violated we can measure observables with mixed parity,
i.e. not eigenstates of parity
• best read Bowler, Nuclear Physics, chapter 2.3 on parity!
Parity Conservation
• If parity is conserved for reaction a + b  c + d.
L final
ηa ηb (−1) Linitial = ηc ηd (−1)
where η x are intrinsic parities of particle x
• Absolute parity of states that can be singly produced from
vacuum (e.g. photons η γ = -1) can be defined wrt. vacuum
• For other particles we can define relative parity. e.g.
arbitrarily define η p=+1, η n=+1 then we can determine
parity of other nuclei wrt. this definition
• parity of anti-particle is opposite particle’s parity
• Parity is a hermitian operator as it has real eigenvalues!
• If parity is conserved <pseudo-scalar>=0 (see next
transparency).
• Nuclei are Eigenstates of parity
Parity Conservation
 Let Op be an observable pseudo scalar operator, i.e. [H,
Op]=0
 Let parity be conserved [H, P]=0  [P, Op]=0
Let Ψ be Eigenfunctions of 3P and H with 3 parity η
* 2 intrinsic
< O p > =∫ψ O pψ d r =∫ψ P O pψ d r

* p
insert Unity
< O p > = − ∫ψ * POp Pψ d 3r as POp=-OpP since [P, Op]=0
< O p > = − (η p ) 2 ∫ψ *O pψ d 3 r use E.V. of Ψ under

parity
< O p > = − ∫ψ *O pψ d 3r
 <Op> = - <Op> = 0 QED
 it is often useful to think of parity violation as a non
vanishing expectation value of a pseudo scalar operator
Q: Is Parity Conserved In
Nature?
• A1: Yes for all electromagnetic and strong
interactions.
• Feynman lost his 100$ bet that parity was conserved
everywhere. In 1956 that was a lot of money!
• A2: Big surprise was that parity is violated in weak
interactions.
• How was this found out?
– can’t find this by just looking at nuclei. They are parity
eigenstates (defined via their nuclear and EM interactions)
– must look at properties of leptons in beta decay which are
born in the weak interaction
– see Bowler, Nuclear Physics, chapter 3.13
Mme. Wu’s “Cool”
Experiment
60
Co( J = 5) → 60 Ni * ( J = 4) e −ν e ; 60
Ni * → 60
Ni + γ
• Adiabatic demagnetisation to get T ~ 10 mK
• Align spins of 60Co with magnetic field.
• Measure angular distribution of electrons and
photons relative to B field.
• Clear forward-backward asymmetry of the electron
direction (forward=direction of B)  Parity
violation.
• Note: 5+ Excitation
~100% Energy
– Spin S= axial vector 4+
β allowed
-
2.51 MeV
– Magnetic field B = axial vector Gamov Teller 2+
– Momentum p = real vector decay ∆ J=1 1.33 MeV
–  Parity will only flip p not B and S 0+
0 MeV
60
Co 60
Ni
The Wu Experiment
γ ’s from late cascade

decays of Ni* measure
degree of polarisation
gamma det. signals
of Ni* and thus of Co
summed over both
B orientations!
electron signal shows

asymmetry of the
electron distribution
scintillator signal
sample warms up  asymmetry disappears

see also Burcham & Jobes, P.370
Interpreting the Wu
Experiment
• Let’s make an observable pseudo scalar
Op:
– Op=JCo * pe = Polarisation (axial vector dot real
vector)
• If parity were conserved this would have
a vanishing expectation value
• But we see that pe prefers to be anti-
parallel to B and thus to JCo
• Thus: parity is violated
Improved Wu-Experiment
• Polar diagram of angular
dependence of electron
intensity
• θ is angle of electron
momentum wrt spin of 60Co
or B
• using many detectors at
many angles
• points indicate
measurements
• if P conserved this would
have been a circle centred
on the origin
γ decays
• When do they occur?
– Nuclei have excited states similar to atoms. Don’t worry about
details E,JP (need a proper shell model to understand).
– EM interaction less strong then the strong (nuclear) interaction
– Low energy excited states E<6 MeV above ground state can’t
usually decay by nuclear interaction  γ -decays
• γ -decays important in cascade decays following α and
β decays.
• Practical consequences
– Fission. Significant energy released in γ decays (see later lectures)
– Radiotherapy: γ from Co60 decays
– Medical imaging eg Tc (see next slide)
Energy Levels for Mo and Tc
• Make Mo-99 in an accelerator
• attach it to a bio-compatible molecule
• inject that into a patient and observe where the patient emits γ -rays
• don’t need to “eat” the detector as γ ’s penetrate the body
• call this substance a tracer
MeV
interesting meta
both β decay stable state
leaves Tc in
excited state.
MeV
Introduction
• Particle Ranges
a) If smooth energy loss via many
steps (i.e. ionisation from light ions) a)
 sharply defined range, useful for
rough energy measurement
b) If a few or a single event can

stop the particle (i.e. photo-
effect) b)
 exponential decay of particle
beam intensity,
 decay constant can have useful
energy dependence
 No range but mean free path
c) defined
Sometimes several types of c)
processes happen (i.e. high
energy electrons)
 mixed curves, extrapolated
maximum range aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
Introduction(classification of
interactions)
 Particles we are interested in
 photons
 exponential attenuation at low E, often get absorbed in single
events
 detect secondary electrons and ions liberated in absorption
process.
 charged particles
 sharper range (continuously loose energy via ionisation)
 leave tracks of ionisation in matter  measure momentum in
B
 sometimes radiate photons  can be used to identify particle
type
 neutrons
 electrically neutral  no first-order em-interaction  devils to
detect
 react only via strong force (at nuclear energies!)

long exponential range (lots of nuclear scattering events
followed by absorption or decay)
Charged particles in matter
(non radiating interactions, what to collide with)
• What could a charged particle collide with

– Atomic electrons (“free”)
 large energy loss ∆ E≈q2/2me (small me, q=momentum transfer)
 small scattering angle
– Nuclei
 small energy loss (∆ E=q2/2mnucleus )
 large scattering angle
– Unresolved atoms (predominant at low energies)
 medium energy loss ∆ E<q2/2meeff because: meeff (bound)>me(free)
 medium scattering angle
 atoms get excited and will later emit photons (scintillation)
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula)
• Deal with collisions with electrons first

since these give biggest energy loss.
• Task: compute rate of energy loss per
path length, dE/dx due to scattering of a
charged particle from electrons in
matter.
• Remember a similar problem?
• Scatter alpha particles of nuclei =
Rutherford scattering
(Comparison between Rutherford Scattering and EM-scattering of
free electrons)
• Rutherford Scattering • Bethe-Bloch situation
– any charged particle X – any charged particle X
(original used α ’s) scatters of scatters of electron (in
nucleus matter)
commonalities
– Charge(X)=Ze – Charge(X)=Ze
– Charge(nucleus)=Z’e – Charge(electron)=1e
– Mnucl >> MX  no nuclear- – MX >> Me  no X-recoil (not
recoil true for X=e-)
– first order perturbation theory – first order perturbation theory
(Z*Z’*α em <<1) (Z*1*α em <<1)
– point ↔ point scattering – point ↔ point scattering
 no form-factors  no form-factors
differences
 spin-0 scatters of spin-0  spin-0 scatters of spin-½

 non-relativistic  could be relativistic
 nucleus assumed  electron is often bound
unbound
(Comparison between Rutherford Scattering and EM-scattering of
free electrons)
• Will initially ignore the spin and

relativistic effects when deriving first
parts of Bethe Bloch formula
• Start with Rutherford like scattering
using electron as projectile
• Later introduce more realistic
scattering crossection (Mott) to get full
Bethe Bloch formula
• Add effects for bound electrons at the
end
(From Rutherford Scattering to the Bethe-Bloch Formula)
Differential Rutherford-scattering crossection for electrons as projectiles
•
d σ Rutherford z α ( hc )
2 2 2
−4 θ
= sin
dΩ 2 2
4P V 2
P,V = momentum and relative velocity of electron wrt. nucleus
Z = charge of nucleus
θ = scattering angle of the electron wrt. incoming electron
direction
Ω = stereo angle
 If we want to turn this process around to describe energy loss of
a particle X scattering of electrons in a solid we need to initially
assume:
 X scatters of free electrons i.e. Ekin,projectile >> Ebin,electron or
Vprojectile >>Vbound-e (deal with bound electrons later)
 MX>>me so that reduced Mreduced (X) ≈ Mrest (X)  will need recoil
corrections to apply results to dE/dx of electrons passing through
matter
(normal Rutherford Scattering: e- on nucleus, change of
variables)
• Change variables from Ω to q2 (q = momentum
transfer to electron) to get to frame independent form
q 2 = P 2 + P ′2 + 2PP ′ cosθ
in elastic scattering of heavy nucleus: P = P ′ = p ⇒
θ
q 2 = 2p 2 (1 − cosθ ) = 4p 2 sin2 P’ electron
t
,ou
q
2 θ
dq 2 θ  1
sin 2   = ( 1 − cos θ ) Pelectron,in
= 2p 2 sinθ 2 2
dθ
dθ 1
if no φ dependence: d Ω = 2π sinθ d θ ⇔ =
d Ω 2π sinθ
dσ d θ d σ d θ dq 2 d σ 1 dσ p2 dσ
= = = 2p sinθ
2
=
d Ω d Ω dθ d Ω d θ dq 2
2π sinθ dq 2
π dq 2
(normal Rutherford Scattering: e- on nucleus, change of
variables)
d σ z α ( hc )
2 2 2
−4 θ
= sin
dΩ 2 2
4p V 2
θ q 2
since: sin2 =
2 4p 2
d σ z α ( hc ) 4p 2
2 2 2
=
dΩ V2 q4
dσ π dσ
since: = 2
dq 2
p dΩ
4π z 2α 2 ( hc )
2
dσ
2
=
dq V 2q 4
(Rutherford Scattering, change of frame to nucleus on e)
• Change frame to:

– electron stationary (in matter), nucleus moving
with V towards electron
– p in formula is still momentum of electron
moving with relative V  p =meγ V
– q2 is frame independent
• non-relativistic this is obvious (do it at home)
• Energy transfer to the electron is defined via:
• ∆ E=ν =|q2|/2me  dν /dq2=1/2me
• relativistic need to define q as 4-momentum transfer,
but we assume non relativistic for Rutherford anyway.
(From inverse Rutherford scattering to the Bethe-Bloch
Formula)
1 d σ 4π z α ( hc )
2 2 2
dσ dν d σ
= = =
dq 2
dq dν 2me dν
2
V 2q 4
|q2|
=2ν me 2π z 2α 2 ( hc )
2
dσ 1
dν = dν
dν mV
e
2
ν 2
• Above is crossection for a non relativistic heavy particle of

charge z to loose energy between ν and ν +dν in collision with
a spin-less electron it approaches with velocity V
• We want as a useful quantity:
– kinetic energy lost by projectile = -dT ν max
dσ
–
–
per path length dx
in material of atomic number density n
−dT = nZdx ′
v min
ν ∫ dν
dν
– with Z’ electrons per atomnumber of collissions with
electrons in length dx percrossection weighte
unit crossection area avg. energy lost per
collision
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, simple integral)
ν max
dT 1 2π Z 2α 2 (hc )2  2π Z 2α 2(hc ) 2    ν max  
− = nZ ′ ∫ ν 2 dν = nZ ′   ln  
ν min ν    ν min  
2 2
dx mVe  mV e
• Two of our assumptions justifying the use of

Rutherford scattering were:
– Electrons in matter have no spin
– Projectile travels at non relativistic speed
• None of these are met in practise
• We have to do all of the last 5 slides again
starting from a relativistic crossection for spin ½
electrons.
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, Mott)
• Differential Mott-scattering crossection for relativistic spin ½ electrons scattering off a

finite mass nucleus (finite mass  e- could be target)
z α ( hc )
2 2 2
dσ −4 θ  V 2
2θ 
= sin ⋅ 1 − 2 sin 
d Ω Mott 2 2
4P V 2  c 2
Rutherford term Mott
term
 If we perform the same transformations (Ω q2ν ) with this
crossection and then perform the integral:
ν max
d σ Mott
′ ∫ν
−dT = nZdx dν
v min
dν
 we get …
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, Mott integral)
Mott term
dT  2π Z 2α 2 (hc )2    ν max   V 2   ν max − ν min  

− = nZ ′   ln   − 1 − 2   2 
   ν min  
2
dx  mVe c   2mec  
 Valid for all charged particles A list of limits for ν max follows:
(not limited to heavy Note: c=1 from here downwards!
particles)
2(E 2 − M 2 )
 ν max can be computed via ν max = 2
kinematics of “free” electron M
2
+ me + 2E
since Ebind << Ekin (see m e
Williams problem
2mec 2 β 211.1
γ 2 on if E ? M and E ? M 2
me and E ? me then
ν
p.246)
max = 2
me  me  ν max ≈ E (ultra relativistic incoming particle)
1 + 2γ + 
M M 
E P if incoming particle is not relaticistic ( β = 1)
with: γ = and β =
M E E = T + M and T = M
as properties of incoming 4meMT
ν ≈
particle aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
max
(M + m )2
e
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, ν min )
• But what about ν min ?

– can not assume that e is free for small energy transfers
– ν ≠q2/2me because electron bound to atom
– can get excited atoms in final state (not just ions)
 our integral was wrong for the lower limit! (can’t get from
first to second line on slide 15 any more)
– For small ν need 2-D integral dν dq depending on detailed
atomic structure
– We need to find some average description of the atomic
structure depending only on Z and A if we want to find a
universal formula
– This gives sizable fraction of integral but is very hard to do
– The result is the Bethe-Bloch Formula
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula = BBF)
1 dT N AZ ′  4π Z 2α 2h2   1 2mec 2β 2γ 2ν max δ

− =    ln −β − 
2
ρ dx A  me β 2
 2 I 2
2
with β = V , γ = 1 , ρ = mass density, δ = density correction
c 1- β 2
A = atomic number, N A = Avogadro's number, I = mean excitation potential
1 dT
− is called Stopping Power.
ρ dx
• Stopping power = mean energy lost by ionisation upon
perpendicularly traversing a layer of unit mass per area.
• Units: Mev g-1 cm2, Range: 4.1 in H to 1.1 in U
• I=mean excitation energy; depends on atom type, I≈11*Z [eV]
in the infinitely heavy projectile ("no recoil", M ? 2γ me )

approximation ν max=2mec 2β 2γ 2 and this becomes:
1 dT N AZ ′  4π Z 2α 2h2   2mec 2β 2γ 2 δ
− =   ln − β 2
− 
ρ dx A  m β 2
I
e  2 
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, Bethe-Bloch
features)
1 dT N AZ ′  4π Z 2α 2h2   1 2mec 2β 2γ 2ν max δ
− =    ln −β − 
2
ρ dx A  me β 2
 2 I 2
2
• δ =density correction: dielectric properties of medium shield growing range of
Lorenz-compacted E-field that would reach more atoms laterally. Without this
the stopping power would logarithmically diverge at large projectile velocities.
Only relevant at very large β γ
δ hω p 1
(off syllabus) = ln + ln βγ − and ω p = 28.816 ρ ( Z ′ A
2 I 2
BBF as a Function of β γ is nearly independent of M of projectile except for ν
• max
and very weak log dependence in δ
 if you know p and measure β  get M (particle ID via dE/dx): See slide 23
• Nearly independent of medium. Dominant dependence is Z’/A ≈½ for most
elements.
• Limitations:
– totally wrong for very low V (ln goes negative  particle gains Energy = stupid)
– correct but not useful for very large V (particle starts radiating, see next chapter)
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, variation with β γ )
µ + can
capture e-
Eµ c = critical energy
defined via:
dE/dxion. =dE/dxBrem.
Bethe
Bloch
• Broad minimum @ β γ ≈3.0(3.5) for Z=100(7) Stopping Power at minimum varies

• At minimum, stopping power is nearly independent of
particle type and material from 1.1 to 1.8 MeV g-1 cm2)
 Particle is called minimum ionising
(MIP) when at minimum
(Ionisation and the Bethe-Bloch Formula, variation with particle
type)
in drift
chamber • P=mγ v=mγ β c
gas
• variation in dE/dx is
useful for particle ID
• variation is most
pronounced in low
energy falling part of
curve
e
• if you measured P and
dE/dx you can
determine the particle
mass and thus its
“name”
(Radiating Interactions)
• Emission of scintillation light is secondary

process occurring later in time.
– Has no phase coherence with the incident charge and
is isotropic and thus SCINTILLATION NOT A
RADIATING INTERACTION in this sense.
• Primary radiation processes which are coherent
and not isotropic are:
– Cherenkov radiation is emitted by the medium due
to the passing charged particle.
– Bremsstrahlung and Synchrotron Radiation are
emitted by charged particle itself as result of its
environment.
(Cherenkov Radiation)
• Source of E-field (Q) passing through medium at a v > vphase (light in medium)
creates conical shock wave. Like sonic boom or bow wave of a planing speed
boat.
• Not possible in vacuum since v<c. Possible in a medium when v>c/n.
– The Cerencov threshold at β = 1/n can be used to measure β and thus do particle
ID if you can measure the momentum as well.
• Huygens secondary wavelet construction gives angle of shockwave as cosθ =
1/β n, This can be used to measure particle direction and β .
A
 In time that the particle goes from ct/n
O to P, light goes from O to A.
 Cherenkov radiation first used θ β ct
in discovery of antiproton (1954). O particle trajectory
P
 Now often used in large water-filled
neutrino detectors and for other
particle physics detectors (see
Biller).
 Total energy emitted as Cherenkov
Radiation is ~0.1% of other dE/dx.
(Cherenkov Radiation)
• Picture of
Cherenkov light
emitted by beta
decay electrons in
a working water
cooled nuclear
reactor.
(Bremsstrahlung = BS = Brake-ing Radiation)
• Due to acceleration of incident charged particle in nuclear
Coulomb field γ
• Radiative correction to Rutherford Scattering. - e-*
• Continuum part of x-ray emission spectra. e e -
• Electrons “Brem” most of all particles because

– radiation ~ (acceleration)2 ~ mass-2 . Ze
• Lorentz transformation of dipole radiation from incident
particle frame to laboratory frame gives “narrow” (not
sharp) cone of blue-shifted radiation centred around cone
angle of θ =1/γ .
• Radiation spectrum falls like 1/E (E=photon Energy)
because particles loose many low-E photons and few high-
E photons. I.e. It is rare to hit nuclei with small impact
parameter because most of matter is “empty”
• Photon energy limits:
– low energy (large impact parameter) limited through shielding of
nuclear charge by atomic electrons.
– high energy limited by maximum incident particle energy.
(Bremsstrahlung  EM-showers, Radiation length)
• dT/dx|Brem ~T (see Williams p.247, similar to our deriv. of BBF and plot on slide 22) 
dominates over dT/dx|ionise ~ln(T) at high T.
• Ecrit = Energy at which BR-losses exceed ionisation losses (see slide 22)
• For electrons Bremsstrahlung dominates in nearly all materials above
few 10 MeV. Ecrit (e-) ≈ 600 MeV/Z
• If dT/dx|Brem ~T  T(x)=T0 exp(-x/X0)
• Radiation Length X0 of a medium is defined as:
– distance over which electron energy reduced to 1/e via many small BS-
losses
– X0 ~Z 2 approximately as it is the charge that particles interact with
• Bremsstrahlung photon can produce e+e--pair (see later) and start an
em-shower (also called cascade, next slide)
 The development of em-showers, whether started by primary e or γ is
measured in X0.
(simple EM-shower model)
• Simple shower model assumes:
– e≈2
– E0 >> Ecrit
– only single Brem-γ or pair
production per X0
• The model predicts:
– after 1 X0, ½ of E0 lost by primary
via Bremsstrahlung
– after next X0 both primary and
photon loose ½ E again
– until E of generation drops below
Ecrit
– At this stage remaining Energy lost
via ionisation (for e+- ) or compton
scattering, photo-effect (for γ )
etc.
 Abrupt end of shower happens at t=tmax = ln(E0/Ecrit)/ln2

 Indeed observe logarithmic dependence of shower depth on E0
(Synchroton Radiation)
• Appears mainly in circular accelerators (mainly to electrons)

and limits max. energy achievable.
• Similar to Bremsstrahlung
• Replace microscopic force from E-field in Bremsstrahlung
with macroscopic force from vxB to keep electron on circular
orbit
• Electrons radiate only to the outside of circle because they
are accelerated inward
• Angle of maximum intensity of synchrotron radiation with
tangent of ring θ =1/γ
• Synchrotron radiation = very bright source of broad range of
photon energies up to few 10 keV used in many areas of
science
• Many astrophysical objects emit synchrotron radiation from
relativistic electrons in strong magnetic fields
Photons in matter
(Overview-I)
• Rayleigh scattering
– Coherent, elastic scattering on the entire atom (the blue sky)
– γ + atom  γ + atom
– dominant at λ γ >size of atoms
• Compton scattering
– Incoherent scattering on electron from atom
– γ + e-bound  γ + e-free
– possible at all Eγ > min(Ebind )
– to properly call it Compton requires Eγ >>Ebind (e-) to approximate free
e-
• Photoelectric effect
– absorption of photon and ejection of single atomic electron
– γ + atom  γ + e-free + ion
– possible for Eγ < max(Ebind ) + δ E(Eatomic-recoil , line width) (just above k-
edge)
Photons in matter
(Overview-II)
 Pair production
 absorption of γ in atom and emission of e+e- pair
 Two varieties:
 a) dominant: γ + nucleus  e+ + e- +
nucleusrecoil
 b) weak: γ + Z*atomic e-  e+ + e- + Z *atomic
e-recoil
 Both variants need: Eγ >2mec2 + Erecoil
 bigger Mrecoil gives lower threshold because Erecoil =
Precoil 2/2Mrecoil

type a) has lower threshold then type b) because
Mnucl >>Meeff
 Nucleus/atom has to recoil to conserve momentum
 coupling to nucleus/atom needed  strongly
charge-dependent crossection (i.e. growing with Z)
Photons in matter (Crossections)
Lead
Carbon
R  Rayleigh PE  Photoeffect C  Compton PP  Pair Production on nucleus

PPE  Pair Production on atomic electrons PN  Giant Photo-Nuclear dipole resonance
 As Z increases
 PE extends to higher E due to stronger atomic e- binding
 PP & PPE extend to lower E due to stronger coupling of projectile to target
 Threshold for PPE decreases as nucleus contributes more to recoil via stronger
atomic electron-nucleus bond
 As A increases Erecoil (nucleus) decreases and threshold for PP gets closer
to minimum of 2*m c 2
Photons in matter
(Comparison of Bremsstrahlung and Pair Production)
Bremsstrahlung Pair production

Typical Lenth =
Typical Lenth =
Radiation Length
e -
γ γ e -
Pair Production
Length L0
X0 e-* e-*
e- e-
X0 :
distance high E e-
Ze Ze L0 :
distance high E γ
travels before it
travels before
reduces its energy
by 1/e or
 Very similar Feynman prob. for non
Diagram interaction
reduced to 1/e
E(e-)=E0*exp(-x/X0)  Just two arms swapped
X0=attenuation
length
L0=9/7 X0 P(γ )=1/L0*exp(-
x/L0)
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in L0=mean free path

Advanced Nuclear Physics by Imran Aziz

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Advanced Nuclear Physics by Imran Aziz

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Advanced Nuclear

MOHAMMAD IMRAN AZIZ

The nuclear spins for individual protons and neutrons

The quantity Q0 is the classical form of the calculation

Atomic Mass (the mass of a neutral atom):

M = Z ⋅ mp + N ⋅ mn +U nucleus / c2 +Z ⋅me +U el.− nucl

U nucleus , U el.− nucl. < 0 - attraction between nucleons in the nucleus

The density of neutron stars is comparable

(Unstable) isotopes of tin

~ 10-10 - 10-9 m Protons & Neutrons

Binding energy: Esys + EB = E parts EB = E parts − Esys -the binding energy is

The decrease of the binding energy with

Maria Goeppert-Mayer, J.H.D.Jensen

Some important transformation processes driven by weak interaction:

protons neutrons protons neutrons

The proton-neutron disbalance becomes more

• Use 1st order perturbation

surface area ~ n2/3

to change the integral to dr ; R=outer radius of

• If the assumption holds the mass difference should be due to n/p

• Because it has more np

neutrons protons Illustration

 Crosses represent initially occupied

states in ground state.

over neutrons the extra energy is ((Z-

−2 3 21 35 ( N − Z )2 note! linear terms cancel

• The Asymmetry term:

• Put everything together:

 Lets see how all of these assumptions fit reality

• Easy to solve if l=0

• For L>0, angular momentum term goes to infinity at r=0.

• NUCLEI: large self-coupling. Plus if 2 p (or 2 n) then will anti-align

*** “magic” number is where there is a large energy gap between a

• Ni-78 (2005) doubly magic. While it is unstable, it is the much

• This is total cross section. Can also define

ia n exp(− iE n t / ) + a n E n exp(− iE n t / ) = ∑ a m H mn exp(− iE m t /  )

Normalised Breit-Wigner line

Q: where have you seen this shape

• Combine rate, flux & density states 

−1 exp( iqr cosθ ) 2

Compare with experimental data

∆ Esep ≈6MeV per nucleon for heavy nuclei

• Spontaneous fission rates low due to high coulomb

• ∆ Esep (n,238 92 U) = 4.78 MeV only 

<# prompt n>

<n-delay> <# delayed n>

Energy balance of 235

• 238 92 U does nearly no n -induced fission below En,kin ≈1.4 MeV

• After 10-8 s 1n is replaced with ν =2.5 n, ν =average prompt

• If object dimensions << lmp =7 cm

– Fission of 238 U (5%)

• as Eneutron decreases via inelastic scattering

• Way 1: Thermal Reactors

• Way 2: Fast Reactors

– Details about fast reactors later

• For bomb we found:

Delayed Neutron Precursor Groups

Group (sec) Fraction (MeV)

• Since fuel rods “hopefully” remain in reactor

H 2O liquid small best reactive cheap good

C solid mild medium reactive cheap medium

• Want dq/dT < 0

• ideal bomb fuel = pure 239Pu

A massive star near the end C burning T ~ 6108 K ρ ~ 2105