PHILOSOPHY OF

SCIENCE
 The PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
investigates philosophical
assumptions, foundations, and
implications of the sciences
SCIENCE
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
 SCIENCE
- systematic search for
knowledge
- aim (knowledge), an activity
(search),and with certain
qualifications (systematic)
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
systematic and socially organized
a.Search for
b.Acquisition of
c.Use or application of knowledge and
insight
DIFFERENTIATING
SCIENCE FROM
NONSCIENCE
DIFFERENTIATING SCIENCE FROM NONSCIENCE

1. Data analysis framed by preconceptions is

nonscience
2. Preconception is acceptable in the context
of discovery but not in the context of
justification
3. Scientific hypothesis or theory can be
contested with possible observations
Selected Characteristics of Nonscience
1. BELIEF IN AUTHORITY. Some person have special ability determine what is
true or false, an others have to accept their judgment.
2. NONREPEATABLE EXPERIMENTS. Reliance on experiments with outcomes that
cannot be reproduced by others.
3. HANDPICKED EXAMPLES. Examples that are not representative of the general
category to which the investigation refers are considered decisive.
4. UNWILLINGNESS TO TEST. A testable theory is ot tested.
5. DISREGARD TO REFUTING INFORMATION. Ignoring or neglecting observations
or experiments that conflict with a theory.
6. BUILT-IN SUBTERFUGE. Arranged the testing of a theory so that it can only be
verified but never falsified by the outcome.
7. EXPLANATIONS ABANDONED WITHOUT REPLACEMENT. Giving up tenable
explanations without replacing them, so that more is left unexplained in the
new theory than in the previous one
KNOWLEDGE AND
TRUTH
 KNOWLEDGE

“justified true belief”

a. justified
b. truth
 THEORIES OF TRUTH
1. CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
OF TRUTH
- something is true if it
corresponds with events or
things in the world
 THEORIES OF TRUTH
2. COHERENCE THEORY OF
TRUTH
- scientific hypothesis or theory
is true if it coheres with other
hypotheses or theories
 THEORIES OF TRUTH

3. PRAGMATIC THEORY OF
TRUTH
- the truth is what is useful or
what works
WHY MOST RESEARCH RESULTS IN EMERGING FIELDS ARE
FALSE
1.The studies conducted in an emerging scientific field are
small
2.The effect sizes in an emerging scientific field are small
3.The number of tested relationships is great but the selection
of tested relationships is small
4.The flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes and analytical
modes in an emerging scientific field are great
5.The financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific
field are great
6.The scientific field is hot (more scientific teams are involved)
 CAUSATION
The causes of phenomena
1.Necessary Condition
2.Sufficient Condition
3.Combination of conditions that together are
sufficient/Insufficient and Necessary part of an
Unnecessary but Sufficient condition (INUS)
PROBABILISTIC CAUSATION

CAUSES raise the

probability of
corresponding effects.
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

1.STRENGTH OF ASSOCIATION
The stronger the association, the less
likely the relationship is due to chance
or confounding variable
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

2. CONSISTENCY OF THE OBSERVED

ASSOCIATION
Has the association been observed
by different persons, in different
places,circumstances and times.
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

3. SPECIFICITY
if an association is limited to specific
persons, sites and types of disease, and if
there’s no association between the
exposure and other modes of dying , then
the relationship supports causation.
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

4. TEMPORALITY
the exposure of interest must
precede the outcome by a period of
time consistent with any proposed
biologic mechanism
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

5. BIOLOGIC GRADIENT
there is a gradient of risk associated
with the degree of exposure
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

6. BIOLOGIC PLAUSIBILITY
there is a known or postulated
mechanism by which the exposure
might reasonably alter the risk of
developing the disease
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

7. COHERENCE
the observed data should not
conflict with known facts about the
natural history and biology of the
disease
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

8. EXPERIMENT
the strongest support for causation
may be obtained through controlled
experiments
BRADFORD HILL’S “VIEWPOINTS” ON
CAUSATION

9. ANALOGY
in some cases, it is fair to judge
cause-effect relationships by analogy
 COUNTERFACTUAL
CONDITIONS

Contrast between one outcome(the

effect) given certain conditions(the
cause) and another outcome given
alternative conditions
 SCIENTIFIC
EXPLANATION
 DEDUCTIVE NOMOLOGICAL
MODEL OF EXPLANATION (DNM)
-When a phenomenon is explained
by deducing it from laws or law-
like statements, series of
deductive steps
- prediction of its occurrnce
 DEDUCTIVE STATISTICAL MODEL OF
EXPLANATION (DSM)
- A version of DNM that supports
explanations of statistical regularities
by deduction from more general
statistical laws instead of
deterministic aws
INDUCTIVE STATISTICAL MODEL OF
EXPLANATION (ISM)

- Explains likely events inductively

from statistical model
 According to causal model of explanation,
one must follow procedures:

1. Compile a list of statistically relevant factors

2. Analyze the list by a variety of methods
3. Create causal models of the statistical
relationships
4. Test the models empirically to determine
which is best supported by the evidence
MODES OF
INFERENCE
1. DEDUCTION

Inference from general

statements to particular
statements
2. INDUCTION

Inference to a general rule

from particular instances
3. ABDUCTION

Infers the best explanation.

When a certain observation is
made, a hypothesis can be
found that makes it possible
to deduce a conclusion
THREE ARGUMENTS
JUSTIFYING
SCIENTIFIC REALISM
1.TRANSCENDENTAL ARGUMENT

Asks what the world must be

like to make science possible
2. HIGH-LEVEL EMPIRICAL ARGUMENT

Scientific theories are true

because they best elucidate
the success of science
3. INTERVENTIONIST APPROACH

One can have well-grounded

beliefs about what exists
based on what we one do
 RATIONALISM

Position that reason takes

precedence over other ways
of acquiring or justifying
knowledge
 Thank you!

Love Aiza B. Escapalao,

LPT,RPm