LECTURE ON SOILS

What is Soil ?

• Is the most readily available materials but the least understood

of all engineering materials, hence its mechanical properties are
more complex and difficult to determine.

• Is the material upon which all engineering structure are founded

and supported. It is elastic, plastic and non-uniform and its
mechanical properties are available with time and changes in
water content and density.
SOIL GROUPS AND ITS IDENTIFICATION
1. Granular Soils - individual particles are visible to naked
eyes and it is non-plastic such as gravel
and sand.
Gravel – from 75 mm to 2.0 mm
Sand - from 2.0 mm to 0.075 mm

2. Fined-Grained Soils - individual particles are quite visible to

naked eye such as clay and silt. Clay is
plastic when wet and easily crumbles
when dry. Silt is slightly plastic.
Silt - from 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm
Clay – from 0.002 mm to 0.001 mm
Colloids – less than 0.001 mm

3. Organic - dark in color, fibrous structure and with

foul odor as peat and muck
 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

GRANULAR FINE - GRAINED ORGANIC

Good load-bearing Poor load-bearing The presence of

organic matter
will adversely
Drain readily Hard to drain affect the engg.
properties of
Not susceptible to either granular
strength or volume Susceptible to strength
or fine-grained,
change due to change in or volume change
if the amount is
water content appreciable.
Compressible due to
Comparatively incompres
static load,but settlement
sible due to static load
is slow
Susceptible to volume
change under vibra -
tory load, if not adequa- -
tely compacted
QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES IN SOILS

The primary consideration is to maximize the stability of

the soil structure. This is achieve by careful attention to the
following quality control measures during the various stages
of construction:

1. Soil Improvement by Selection or Stabilization

2. Minimize Change in Water Content

3. Provide Adequate Subsoil and Surface Drainage

4. Insure thorough Compaction

5. Construction of Slope Protection Works

 1. SOIL IMPROVEMENT BY SELECTION OR STABILIZATION

a. By Selection and Utilization of Suitable Soils

- Peat, muck and other highly organic soils should be avoided

or excavated and replaced with more stable material. Soil with
natural water content exceeding 100% are also difficult to
handle in construction work.

Characteristics of Replacement Material:

• All particles should be smaller than 3 inches

• Liquid limit not exceeding 35

• Plasticity index not exceeding 12

 b. By Stabilization

- Soil stabilization is the process of improving the properties

of a soil to make it more suitable for a particular purpose.
It can be done by one or a combination of the following:

1. Particle rearrangement, as compaction or vibro –

floatation

2. Blending, as soil – cement or soil - lime

3. Water content reduction, as sub – drains or

well pointing

4. Chemical admixtures

5. Geotextiles
2. MINIMIZE CHANGE IN WATER CONTENT

Fine – grained soils are susceptible to strength and

volume change due to change in water content.

The soil expand and lose strength if water content

Increased and shrink and gain strength if water
content is reduced.

Therefore, change in water content in fine – grained

soils should be minimized.
STRENGTH - MOISTURE CONTENT RELATIONSHIP
FOR A HEAVY CLAY
3. PROVIDE ADEQUATE SUBSOIL AND SURFACE DRAINAGE

- Adequate drainage on soil structures is of outmost importance.

Increase in water content due to infiltration of surface water or
rise of the water table will reduce its stability. This is countered
by the provision of surface drainage and sub – soil drains

Surface Drainage – is provided for the purpose of keeping out

water from the surface at all times. It is
achieved by providing the surface with
sufficient gradient and lateral slope for the
water to flow and be properly disposed of.
Subsoil Drainage - is provided for the purpose of counter-acting
moisture movement within the structure by
by either seepage or capillary action. It is used
to lower the water table or intercept seepage
flow from high ground. The water table must
be kept at least 1.20 meters below subgrade
level in road structure.
4. INSURE THOROUGH COMPACTION
- Compaction increases the strength of a soil by expelling
air from its voids and forcing soil particles into more
intimate contact.
• In granular soils, air is easily forced out but in heavy or
tight clays, much effort is required to expel it.
• Heavy cohesive soils must be placed in thin layers so
that air can be expelled readily.

- The compaction of soil fills in various engineering operations

is of outmost significance. A properly compacted fill will not
settle very much even after the loads are imposed, therefore,
the detrimental effects of settlement on the structures are
minimized.

- Compaction should be limited to the optimum number of

passes of equipment at the optimum water content of the
soil since additional passes will result in very little com –
paction.
Adequate Compaction of Soil Structures will result in the
following:

• Minimal future settlement

• Greater stability, thus reducing danger of slips

• Greater resistance to water absorption, or minimal

change in water content
5. CONSTRUCTION OF SLOPE PROTECTION WORKS

- Slope protection works are performed to protect slopes

from erosion or weathering by covering them with
vegetation or structures and also to stabilize the slopes
by means of drainage works or retaining structures.

- The stability of the slopes along the road side is affected

due the following factors:

• weak and heterogeneous composition of soil

• heavy rainfall

• erosion of road bench due to sudden rush of large

quantity of surface water run-off from the upper hills
• absence of adequate drainage arrangements

• undermining by seepage flow of water

• subsidence of the road bench due to general subsidence

of the hill

• indiscriminate cutting of trees

• unauthorized quarrying
Methods Used in the Stabilization/Protection of Slopes
will depends on the type of soil and height of slope:

• Flattening

• Sodding or Sprigging

• Blending with Stabilizer

• Paving

• Rock Buttress

• Gabions

• Reinforced Earth
FLATTENING

- slope flattening is the most common and effective

way of soil stabilization but if the slope is too high,
it will be more economical and practical to use the other
method.
 BLENDING WITH STABILIZER

- Soil stabilization by blending with stabilizer using

Portland cement or Lime is common in the construction
of low costroads where there is a scarcity of the
conventional materials.

- Using portland cement or lime for soil stabilization is an

economical method since cement or lime content can be
low as 3 percent for stabilizing and better soils.
ROCK BUTTRESS

- an effective method used for protection of slopes that are

susceptible to sliding or slipping. It is a free draining
gravity structure and is built totally out of local materials.

- it is primarily built of large rocks of non-degradable

sandstone or limestone and because of its free draining
characteristics, the rock buttress works well in
restraining colluvial slides.

- specifications require 50% of the rock to be bigger than

0.015 cu.m ( ½ cu.ft ) with no more than 10% passing a
12.7 mm ( ½ inch ) sieve and must be free of coal, shale
and fine-grained soil.
GABIONS
- is a restraint structure used to control landslide or
erosion. It is free draining, heavy monolithic gravity
structure consisting of wire baskets filled with non-
degrable rocks.

- gabions are flexible enough to cope with differential

settlement and they have excellent permeability to drain
the restrained material. Less lateral space is needed as
compared to the rock buttress, and much preferred where
the space is limited.

- it is made of zinc-coated steel wire and range in size from

1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 m to 1.0 x 1.0 x 3.0 m. Each basket is
secured to an adjacent basket with a tie wire and is loaded
in place with selected rocks ranging from 200 mm to
400 mm in size.
Gabion structures can be subject to various stresses and they must be able to settle, twist
and conform to channel and foundation shifts and changes. At the same time, gabions must
have sufficient strength to contain the weight of the rocks with which they are filled and of
additional filled gabions that may be placed upon them, as well as to resist the impact
force of high velocity
currents and soil pressure.

Applications

• Mass gravity retaining structures

• Mechanically stabilized earth walls (MSE walls)

• Vegetated slope reinforcement

• Slope Stabilization

• Slope reinforcement

• Slope & Bank protection

• Shore Protection

• Culvert Outlet scour pads & headwalls

• Bridge abutments

• Erosion Control
 DPWH STANDARD SPECIFICTIONS

FOR ITEM NOS. 104, 200, 201 & 202

 ITEM 104 – EMBANKMENT

• A soil material which place in a thicker layer above the

subgrade to attain the designed upgrade elevation of a
roadway.

* Made of economical materials with a relatively low load

bearing capacity which are place on top of subgrade or
in order to distribute the wheel load transmitted to the
subgrade.
Materials Requirements:

1. Suitable Materials – material which is acceptable in

accordance with the contract and which can
be compacted in the manner specified in this
item. It can be common material or rock.

Selected Borrow for Topping – soil of such gradation that

all particles will pass a sieve with 75 mm and
not more than 15 mass percent will pass the
0.075 mm sieve. It shall have a plasticity index
of not more than 6 and a liquid limit of not more
than 30.
2. Unsuitable Material – material other than suitable materials such as:

a. Materials containing detrimental quantities of organic

materials such as grass, roots and sewerage.

b. Organic soils such as peak and muck

c. Soils with liquid limit exceeding 80 and/or plasticity

index exceeding 55

d. Soils with a natural water content exceeding 100%

e. Soils with very low natural density, 800 kg/m3 or lower

f. Soils that cannot be properly compacted

Construction Requirements:

1. Prior to construction of embankment, all necessary

clearing and grubbing in that area shall have been
performed.

2. Rocks, broken concrete or other solid bulky materials

shall not be placed in embankment areas where piling
is to be placed or driven.

3. The surface of the existing ground shall be compacted

to a depth of 150 mm

4. The top portions of the roadbed in both cuts and fill of

embankments shall consist of selected borrow for topping
from excavations when the Plans requires.
5. Roadway embankment of earth material shall be placed
in horizontal layers not exceeding 200 mm, loose
measurement and shall compacted as specified before
next layer is placed. Thicker layer may be placed if vibra-
tory with high compactive effort is used provided that the
density requirement is attained.

6. Embankment material shall be compacted in a uniform

density of not less than 95 mass percent of the maximum
dry density determined by AASTHO T 99 Method C.

7. Density test of compacted embankment material shall be

conducted at least one group of three in-situ density tests
for each 500 m2 of each layer of compacted fill.
 ITEM 200 – AGGREGATE SUBBASE COURSE

• The subbase is a structural layer which accepts greater

compressive stress than the subgrade and thus reduces
the deformation of the pavement under traffic loading.

* Made of economical materials with a relatively low load

bearing capacity which are place on top of subgrade or
an embankment materials in order to distribute the wheel
load transmitted to the subgrade.
Materials Requirements:

Subbase materials shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of

crushed slag, or crushed natural gravel and filler of natural or crushed sand or
other finely divided mineral matter shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps
or balls of clay.
Grading Requirements:

The subbase materials should be well graded and should conform to the
following grading requirements as tested by ASSHTO T 11 and T 27

Sieve Designation Mass % Passing

Mm Inches
50 2 100
25 1 55 – 85
9.5 3/8 40 – 75
0.075 No. 200 0 - 12

- The fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall not be greater than
0.66 (2/3) of the fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.
Liquid Limit: (Tested by AASHTO T 89)

- The fraction passing 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a Liquid Limit of not
greater than 35

Plasticity Index: (Tested by AASHTO T 90)

- The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a plasticity index
(PI) of not greater than 12

Abrasion Loss or Mass Percent Wear: (Tested by AASHTO T 96)

- The coarse portion, retained on a 2.0 mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass
percent of wear not exceeding 50 by the Los Angeles Abrasion Tests.
CBR Value: (Tested by AASHTO T 193)

- The material shall shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than 30%. This
value shall obtained at the maximum dry density (MDD) as determined by
ASSHTO T 180, Method D)
Construction Requirements:

Spreading and Compacting

- where the required thickness is 150 mm or less, the material may be spread and
compacted in one-layer.

- where the required thickness is more than 150 mm, the aggregate subbase shall
be spread and compacted into two (2) or more layers of approximately equal
thickness and the maximum compacted thickness of any one (1) layer shall not
exceed 150 mm
- the moisture content of subbase material shall, if necessary be adjusted prior to
compaction by watering with approve sprinklers mounted on trucks or by drying
out, as required in order to obtain the required compaction.

- on curbs headers and walls and all places not accessible to the roller, the
subbase materials shall be compacted thoroughly with approved tampers or
compactors.

- compaction of each layer shall have a field density of at least 100 percent of the
maximum dry density determined in accordance with AASHTO T-180, Method D
- before subbase construction is started, a trial section shall be conducted in order
to check the suitability of the materials and the efficiency of the equipment and
construction method which is proposed to be used by the contractor.

- one trial section of about 500 m2 shall be made for every type of material
and/or construction equipment/procedure propose for use.
 Allowable Tolerances to the Designed Level and
Transverse Slopes for a Compacted Aggregate Subbase

Permitted variation from design

Thickness of Layer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -  20 mm

Permitted variation from design + 10 mm

Level of Surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 mm

Permitted Surface Irregularity

Measured by 3-m straight edge - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 mm

Permitted variation from design

Crossfall or Camber - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ± 0.3%

Permitted variation from design

Longitudinal Grade over 25 m length - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ± 0.1%
ITEM 201 – AGGREGATE BASE COURSE

• The base course is a structural layer installed between the surface pavement layer
and subbase of either flexible or rigid pavement. Their purpose is to help transition
surface loads from pavement to the subbase, evenly support the pavement surface
profile and potect the overall pavement system from water intrusion and
deformation.

• Base course materials shall consist of hard, durable particles or fragments of

crushed stone, crushed slag, crushed or natural gravel, and filler of natural sand or
crushed sand and other finely divided mineral matter.
Liquid Limit: (Tested by AASHTO T 89)

- The fraction passing 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a Liquid Limit of not
greater than 25

Plasticity Index: (Tested by AASHTO T 90)

- The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a plasticity index
(PI) of not greater than 6

Abrasion Loss or Mass Percent Wear: (Tested by AASHTO T 96)

- The coarse portion, retained on a 2.0 mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass
percent of wear not exceeding 50.
 CBR Value: (Tested by AASHTO T 193)

- The material passing the 19 mm (3/4 in.) shall have a soaked CBR value not less
than 80%. The CBR value shall be obtained at MDD by AASHTO T 180, Method
D

CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

Spreading and Compaction

- The same as construction procedure as in Item 200 –

Aggregate Subbase Course
 Allowable Tolerances to the Designed Level and
Transverse Slopes for a Compacted Aggregate Subbase

Permitted variation from design

Thickness of Layer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
 10 mm
----------
Permitted variation from design
+ 5 mm
Level of Surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- 10 mm
----------
Permitted Surface Irregularity
Measured by 3-m straight edge - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5 mm
----------
Permitted variation from design
Crossfall or Camber - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
± 0.2%
---------
Permitted variation from design
Longitudinal Grade over 25 m length - - - - - - - - - - - - -
± 0.1%
---------
ITEM 202 – CRUSHED AGGREGATE BASE
COURSE
• Either a natural or manufactured base course material
where granular component are made of crushed gravel
crushed stone or crushed rock and of much superior
quality than an ordinary base course and not less than
50 mass percent shall have at least one (1) fractured
surface.

• This material requires a soil binder to have plasticity for

proper bonding of aggregates and use to provide
support for surface course of a roadway.
Material Requirements

- Crushed Aggregates

- shall consist of hard,durable particles or fragments of

stone or gravel crushed to the size and shall be clean
and free from vegetable matters, lumps or balls of clay
and other deleterious substances. The material shall be
of such nature that it can be compacted readily to form a
firm, stable base.
GRADING REQUIREMENTS
The base material shall conform to one of the following
grading requirements,whichever is called for in the Bill
of Quantities.

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing

Std., mm Std., inch Grading A Grading B
37.5 1 – 1/ 2 100
25 1 - 100
19 3 /4 60 - 85 -
12.5 1/ 2 - 60 - 90
4.75 No. 4 30 - 55 35 - 65
0.425 No. 40 8 - 25 10 - 30
0.075 No. 200 2- 14 5 - 15
Liquid Limit : ( Tested by AASTHO T 89 )
- The portion of the material passing the 0.425 mm
( No.40 ) sieve shall have a liquid limit of not greater
than 25

Plasticity Index : ( Tested by AASTHO T 90 )

- The portion of the materials passing the 0.425 mm
( No. 40 ) sieve shall have a plasticity index of not
greater than 6

Abrasion Loss or Mass Percent Wear

( Tested by AASTHO T 96 )
- The course aggregate retained on a 2.0 mm ( No.10 )
sieve shall have a mass percent not exceeding 45
by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test
CBR VALUE : ( Tested by AASTHO T 180 )

- The material passing the 19 mm ( ¾ in. ) sieve shall

have a minimum soaked CBR value of 80% tested
according to AASTHO T 193. The CBR value shall be
obtained at the maximum dry density determined
according to AASTHO t 180, Method D.
SAMPLING OF SOILS AND SOIL AGGREGATES

- Sampling is equally as important as the testing and the

sampler shall use every precaution to obtain samples that
will show the nature and condition of the materials which
they actually represent.

- Sampling of potential soils and soil aggregates sources

and the types, occupies a very important place in
determining the availability and suitability of the largest
single constituent entering into the construction.

- It influences the type of construction from the stand point

of economics and governs the necessary material control
to ensure durability of the resulting structure.
TYPES OF SOIL MATERIALS & METHOD OF SAMPLING
1. Undisturbed Soils
- are those obtained from the field with minimum disturbance
by using drilling equipment that provides clean hole before
insertion of thin walled tubes that is both the natural density
and moisture content are preserved as much as practicable.
- soil samples are obtained for investigation to determined the
properties of the materials necessary for the design analysis
of a structure.

TESTS ON UNDISTURBED SOILS

a. Density e. Shear test

b. Permeability f. Hydrometer analysis

c. Consolidation g. Specific gravity

d. Tri - axial
2. Disturbed Soils
- are those obtained from the field thru manual sampling
on the point of sources and or at stockpiles for
investigationpurposes and construction materials for use
in the road and other structures.

TESTS ON DISTURBED SOILS

a. Wash and Grading Tests

b. Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit Tests

c. Moisture – Density Relation Test

d. Abrasion and Field density Tests

e. California Bearing Ratio ( CBR ) Test

 SAMPLING FROM THE STOCKPILES

- Design a sampling plan when a sample is to be obtain

from the stockpile of delivered soil aggregate material.
The sampling plan shall define the number of samples
necessary to represent lots and sublots of specific sizes.

- Sampling of soil aggregates in a big stockpile shall be

done by taking sample from the bottom, middle and top
of the stockpile.
 SAMPLING FROM A ROADWAY
- Sample units shall be selected by a random method
from the construction site. Obtain at least three (3)
approximately equal increments, selected at random
from the unit being sampled, and combined to form
a field sample whose equal or exceeds the minimum
recommended size of samples.

- Take all the increments from the roadway for the full
depth of the material, taking care to exclude the
underlying material.
REQUIREMENTS FOR SUBMISSION OF SOILS & SOIL AGGREGATE SAMPLES

Material / Tests Minimum Testing Minimum Quantity

Required Requirements Of Sample
Soil & Soil Q- 1 (s) per 1500
Aggregates cu.m.
a. Classification 20 kg.

b. Compaction &
50 kg.
CBR
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS AND SOIL AGGREGATES
AASHTO Designation 145 - 87

- The recommended practice describe a procedure for classifying soils

into seven groups based on laboratory determination of particle size
distribution, liquid limit and plasticity index.

- Evaluation of soils within each group is made by means of a “group

index”, which is a value calculated from an emperical formula.

- The group classification, including group index is useful in determi-

ning the relative quality of the soil material for use in earthworks
structures, particularly embankments, subgrades, subbases, and
bases.
Classification Procedure

1. Prepare the test data of soil materials obtained from the result
of test on sieve analysis at sieve nos. 2.00 mm ( # 10 ), 0.425 mm
( # 40 ), 0.075 mm ( # 200 ), and result of tests on liquid limit and
plasticity index,

2. With the Standard Table of Classification of Soils and Soil Aggre-

gates, proceed from the left to right and the correct group will be
found by process of elimination.

3. The first group from the left into which the test data will fit is the
correct classification. All limiting teat values are shown as a whole
number and if fractional numbers appears on the test reports,
convert to the nearest whole number for the purposes of classi-
fication.

4. Group index values should always be shown in parenthesis after

the group symbol as: A- 2 - 6 (3)
 GROUP INDEX
1. The group index is calculated from the following formula:
Group Index = ( F-35 ) ( 0.2 + 0.005 ( LL- 40 ) + 0.01 ( F-15 ) ( PI-10 )
where:
F = percentage passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, expressed as a
whole number. This percentage is based only on the material
passing the 75 mm ( 3 in. ) sieve.
LL = liquid limit
PI = plastic limit
2. When the calculated group index is negative, the group index
shall be reported as zero (0).
Example calculations of Group Index:
Assume that an A-6 material has 55 percent passing the 0.075 mm
( No. 200 ) sieve, liquid limit of 40, and plasticity index of 25.

Group Index = ( 55 – 35 ) ( 0.2 + 0.005 ( 40- 40 ) + 0.01 ( 55 – 15 ) ( 25 – 10 )

= 4.0 + 6.0
= 10
AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION