NDT TECHNIQUES

VISUAL INSPECTION
DPT
 LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION OR DIE PENETRANT TEST
(DPT)

 LPI is a method that is used to

reveal surface breaking flaws/
defects by bleed out of a
colored or fluorescent dye from
the flaw.
 This technique works on the
principle of Capillary Action; i.e.
when developer is applied,
penetrant is drawn out of the
flaws gap.
 DPT
 In old times; Rubbing of carbon
black was used on glazed pottery;
Oil & whitening method in
railways work shop for iron and
steel components.
 Magnaflux: Visible or color
contrast dye penetrant method;
Fluorescent dye was also added
to liquid penetrant (these dyes
would then fluoresce/ glow when
study under ultraviolet light or
also called black light)
 Why a Penetrant Inspection Improves the
Detectability of Flaws

 LPI predominant over unaided visual inspection is that it makes flaw easier to see for
detector. There are two basically two ways that a penetrant inspection Tech. makes flaw
easier to see.
 First LPI produce flaw indication much larger for the eye than the flaw itself. Due to the
physical features of the eye , the threshold of the visual acuity is around 0.003 inch for a
person with 20/20 vision.
 The second way that LPI improves the detectability of a flaw is that it produces a flaw
indication with a high level of contrast between the indication and the background, that’s also
help to make the indication more easily seen. For example the use of bright red dye that
provide a high level of contrast between the white developer.
 Similarly, when fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are
formulated to glow brightly and to give off light at a wavelength that the eye is most sensitive
to under dim lighting conditions.
 DPT PROCEDURE
 Surface Preparation : It’s a very critical step, because surface should be free of oil,
grease and other contaminations that prevents the penetrants entering into the flaws.
 Penetrant Application: Once the specimen is thoroughly clean & dried, the penetrant
material is properly applied by Brushing, Spraying or Immersing the part in the
penetrant bath. Penetrant is a high surface wetting characteristics.
 Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant applied on the specimen surface is allowed to settle
for sufficient time, so that it become seep into the flaws. Penetrant Dwell time is the
total time the penetrant is in contact with the surface. Dwell time is usually
recommended by the penetrant producers or required in the specifications being
followed. Usually time is 5-60minutes.
 Excess Penetrant Removal: it is the most delicate part of inspection process, because
excess penetrant must be removed from the surface while removing as little penetrant
as possible from defects. Depending upon the penetration system; cleaning solvents,
direct rinsing with water or emulsifier is also recommended.
 DPT PROCEDURE

 Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw
penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface (via capillary action) where it will be
visible. Dusting (dry powdered), dipping or spraying (wet developers).
 Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a
period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any
surface flaws. The development time is usually 10 minutes. For tight/thin cracks
significantly longer time may be necessary.
 Inspection: it is carried out under appropriate lightening for detection.
 Clean Surface: After inspection, thoroughly cleaning of inspected part is mandatory.
 PENETRANTS

 Two Types:
 Fluorescent Penetrants
 Visible Penetrants
 The properties of penetrant materials that are controlled by:
 AMS 2644 (Aerospace Military Specifications)
 MIL-I-25135E
 ASTM 1417
 That include flash point, surface wetting capability, viscosity, color, brightness,
ultraviolet stability, thermal stability, water tolerance, and removability.
 DEVELOPERS

Sample standards
 AMS 2644 (Aerospace Military Specifications)
 MIL-I-25135E
 ASTM 1417
 Form a - Dry Powder
 Form b - Water Soluble
 Form c - Water Suspendable
 Form d - Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (Solvent
Based)
 Form e - Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent
Based)
 Form f - Special Applications
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DPT

Advantages Disadvantages
It is highly sensitive to small surface Only detect Discontinuities that are open to
discontinuities/flaws. surface.
No sub-surface detection
Metallic, non-metallic, magnetic, non-magnetic, Possibilities of fire and explosion
conductive and non-conductive materials may be Penetrants can be toxic and hazardous
inspected
Large area and volume can be inspected rapidly Water based chemicals may have deleterious effect
with low cost on some materials, especially steels.
Parts with complex geometric shapes can be
routinely inspected.
Automation possible
RADIOGRAPHY OF METALLIC PARTS
 RADIOGRAPHY

 The radiation used in High Electrical Potential

Radiography testing Electrons

is a higher energy + -
(shorter wavelength)
version of the X-ray Generator or
Radioactive
electromagnetic Source Creates
Radiation
waves.
 The radiation can
come from an X-ray Radiation
Penetrate
generator or a the Sample

radioactive source. Exposure Recording Device

Working Principle

 The part is placed between the radiation source

and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
more of the radiation.
 The film darkness (density) will vary with the
amount of radiation reaching the film through the
test object.
X-ray
film
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
 Nature of Penetrating Radiation

 X-ray and Gamma rays are differ only in

their source of origin.
 X-ray are produce by an X-ray generator
(Artificially Produced)
 While, Gamma rays is the radioactive
atoms (natural Process).
 Both are the part of Electromagnetic
spectrum.
 Both rays cannot be seen, felt, heard.
 They posses no charge, no mass, nor they
are influenced by electrical and magnetic
fields and therefore they travel in straight
lines. Electromagnetic spectrum
 Characterization of X-ray & Gamma Rays

 Both X-ray & Gamma rays are characterized by frequency, wavelength and velocity.
 Somewhat they act as a particle at times in which they occur as small packets of
energy and are referred to as “Photons”. Each Photon contains a certain amount
(bundle) of energy. And only difference b/w others electromagnetic radiations is the
amount of energy found in the photons.
 X-rays & Gamma rays due to their shorter wavelength possess more energy to pass
through matters.
 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
 They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.
 X-Radiation
X-rays can be produced by two difference atomic processes:
 Bremsstrahlung (Braking Radiation) : X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by accelerating
a stream of electrons to energies of several hundred kilovolts with velocities of several
hundred kilometers per hour and colliding them into a heavy target material. The abrupt
acceleration of the charged particles (electrons) produces Bremsstrahlung photons. X-
ray radiation with a continuous spectrum of energies is produced with a range from a
few keV to a maximum of the energy of the electron beam. Target materials for
industrial tubes are typically tungsten, which means that the wave functions of the
bound tungsten electrons are required. The inherent filtration of an X-ray tube must be
computed, which is controlled by the amount that the electron penetrates into the
surface of the target and by the type of vacuum window present.
 K-Shell Emission Radiation

Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of different energies.
The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron can give a K-shell
electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About 0.1% of the electrons
produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten electron of higher energy
(from an outer shell) can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling electron shows
up in an emitted x-ray photon. Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the vacated
energy state in the outer shell, and so on. K-shell emission produces higher-intensity x-rays
than Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength.
 Interaction Between Penetrating Radiation
and Matter

 The absorption and

scattering of photon, while
passing through the matter
is called the attenuation.
 The number of photons
transmitted through a
material depends on the
thickness, density and
atomic number of the
material and also the energy
of the individual photons.
 Interaction Between Penetrating Radiation
and Matter

 Photons travel different distances even they have the

same energy within the material. It is based on the
probability of their encounter with one or more of the
particle of target matter and also the type of
encounter.
 Since this probability increases with the increase of
distance traveled, the number of photons reaching a
specific point within the matter decreases
exponentially with distance travel
 X-Ray Generator
 The major Component is the X-ray Tube, High Voltage
Generator, Control console & Cooling system.
 X-ray is generated by directing a stream of high speed
electrons at a target material such as Tungsten. Which
has a high atomic number 74.
 When the electrons are slowed or stopped by the
interaction with the atomic particles of the target, X-
radiation is produced.
 The cathode tube filament is heated with a low-voltage
current of few Amperes. The filaments heats up and the
electrons in the wire become loosely held.
 A large electrical potential is created between the
cathode and the anode by the high – voltage generator.
 X-Ray Generator

 High- voltage b/w the cathode and anode affects the speed at which the electrons travel and

strike the anode. The higher the kilo voltage, the more speed and therefore, electron have

more energy when they strike the anode.

 Electrons striking with more energy results in X-rays with more penetrating power.

 In order to prevent the cathode from burning up and to prevent arcing between the anode and

the cathode, all oxygen is removed from the tube by pulling a vacuum. Some systems have

external pumps to remove any oxygen that may have leaked into the tube.
 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
 Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an extra
neutron to atoms of source material. As the material get rids from the
neutron, energy is released in the form of gamma rays. Irridium-192 and
Cobalt-60. these isotopes emits discrete wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will emit
1.33 and 1.17 MeV gamma rays and iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47 and 0.60
meV gamma rays.
 In comparison to and X-ray generator, Cobalt-60 produces energies
comparable to a 1.25 MeV X-ray system and Irridium-192 to a 460 KeV X-
ray system. These high energies make it possible to penetrate thick
materials with a relatively short exposure time.
 Also portability of this equipment is the main reason that gamma sources
are widely used for field radiography.
Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources

w
s
 FILM CHARACTERIZATION
CURVES
 In radiographic films, the number of photons
reaching the film determines how dense the film will
become. the number of photons reaching the
photons is a function of the intensity of the radiation
and the time that the film is exposed to the
radiation. The term used to describe the control of
the number of photons reaching the film is
“Exposure”.
 Different types of radiographic films respond
differently to a given amount of exposure. Film
manufacturers commonly characterize their film to
determine the relationship between the applied
exposure and the resulting film density.
 FILM PROCESSING
 Radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue- tinted base
coated on both sides with an emulsion. The emulsion consist of a
gelatin containing radiation sensitive silver bromide and silver
chloride crystals. When x-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the
crystals, some of the Br ions are liberated and captured by Ag ions.
In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a hidden image.
 When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different
chemicals solutions for controlled period of time. Processing
involved:
 Development
 Stopping the development
 Fixing, Washing & Drying
 GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES

COLD LAP : Filler metal does not

properly fuse with the base metal or
the previous weld pass material
(interpass cold lap). Arc doesn’t melt
the base metal sufficiently and
causes the slightly molten puddle to
flow into the base without bonding.
POROSITY: Gas entrapment, porosity
often appears on film in dark rounds
or irregular spots. Sometimes
porosity appears in Worm Hole.
 GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES

 CLUSTER POROSITY :

 SLAG INCLUSIONS :
LACK OF FUSION INTERNAL OR ROOT UNDERCUT  MK
 DISCONTINUITIES IN TIG WELD

TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS OXIDE INCLUSIONS

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

 The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles

coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the
specimen. These particles are attracted to
magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form
an indication directly over the discontinuity. This
indication can be visually detected under proper
lighting conditions.
 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
 This NDT tech. works on the
principle of “Electromagnetism”.
When A/C is applied to the Coil's
conductor/Coil/Probe, a magnetic Coil magnetic field
field is developed around the
conductor. A dynamic expanding Eddy current's
and collapsing magnetic field is magnetic field
formed around the coil. If another Eddy
conducting material is placed in the currents
vicinity of dynamic magnetic field of Conductive
material
electromagnetic material, induction
will occur and eddy current will be
introduce in the material.
 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
 Eddy current will produce Secondary magnetic field and oppose the primary
magnetic field. When flaw is introduce into the conductive material, Eddy
current are disrupted.
 APPLICATION :
 Crack detection
 Material thickness measurements
 Coating thickness measurements
 Conductivity measurements for:
 Material identification
 Heat damage detection
 Case depth determination
 Heat treatment monitoring