Control of

Scatter Radiation
 Objectives
 Begin discussing factors that influence
image detail or visibility of detail
 Spatial & Contrast resolution
 Radiographic Noise
 Scatter Radiation
 Ways to reduce scatter & improve image
quality
 Primary beam restriction & Grids
 Technique adjustments when using grids
What are some factors that
increase scatter radiation?
 3 factors contribute to an
increase in scatter
 Increased kVp

 Increased x-ray field size

 Increased patient thickness

 2 principal characteristics of
any image are Spatial &
Contrast Resolution
 Spatial resolution
 Resolution is the ability to image two separate
objects and visually distinguish one from the
other
 Spatial resolution is the ability to image small
objects that have high subject contrast (eg.
bone-soft tissue interface, calcified lung nodules)
 Determined by focal-spot size and other factors
that contribute to blur
 Diagnostic x-ray has excellent spatial resolution.
It is measured in line pairs per mm. (CT measured in
cm)
SMPTE Test Pattern
 Image-forming x-rays
 Two kinds of photons are responsible
for the OD and contrast on an image:
Photons that pass through without
interacting and those that are
scattered though Compton.

 X-rays that exit the patient are

remnant and those that interact with
the IR are image-forming.
 Ideally, only those x-rays that do
not interact with the patient
should reach the IR….
 However, scatter radiation is a factor
that must be managed
 Proper collimation has the PRIMARY
effect of reducing patient dose by
_________ ?
 Proper collimation also improved
image contrast by reducing
radiographic noise or fog caused by
scatter
Fog or Noise
Contrast changes with the use of a
grid
Less scatter radiation & less
radiographic noise – shorter scale =
“better contrast”

With Grid No
 kVp
 As x-ray energy increases Photoelectric
and Compton interactions decrease.
Explain?

 At 50 kVp 79% photoelectric, 21%

Compton & less than 1% transmission

 At 80 kVp 46% photoelectric, 52%

Compton & 2% transmission
 Pg. 225
How does increasing kVp
affect patient dose?
 Patient Thickness
 Imaging thick parts of the body
results in more scatter radiation
than thin parts

IMAGE TEST
TOOL
 Is patient thickness
something the radiographer
can control?
 Patient thickness
 Normally, No

 Compression devices improves

spatial resolution by reducing
patient thickness and bringing the
object closer to the IR. Compression
also reduces patient dose and
contrast resolution
Compression
 Improves spatial
resolution
 Reduces OID
 Reduces patient
dose
 Improves contrast
resolution
(reducing fog or
noise)
Compression
 Field Size
 As field size increases, intensity of
scatter radiation also increases
rapidly. Especially during
fluoroscopy
Compare images: What do you think about
radiographic contrast & image noise?
 Control of Scatter
Radiation
 Technologists routinely use two
types of devices to reduce the
amount of scatter radiation reaching
the IR

 Beam restrictors

 Grids
3 Types of beam-restricting
devices
 Aperture
Diaphragm

 Cones or
Cylinders

 Variable aperture
collimator
 Variable Aperture
Collimator
 The most common beam-restricting
device is the light-localizing variable
aperture collimator

 The first part of the collimator

serves to control off-focus radiation.
What is off-focus radiation?
 Off - focus Radiation
 X-ray tubes are designed so that the
projectile e- interacts with the
target. However, some of the e-
bounce off the target and land on
other areas

 This caused x-rays to be produced

out side the focal spot
 Extrafocal Radiation
 These rays can also be called off-
focus radiation

 Extrafocal radiation is undesirable

because it extends the size of the
focal spot, increases patient skin
dose & reduces image contrast
Off-focus radiation
 Fixed diaphragm in the
tube housing
 Using a grid
does not reduce
extrafocal
radiation
 First-stage entrance
shuttering device
 Has multiple
collimator
blades
protruding from
the top of the
collimator into
the tube housing
 The collimator lamp & mirror

 Must be adjusted
so that the
projected light field
coincides with the
x-ray beam
 Misalignment of
the light field and
beam can result in
collimator cutoff of
anatomic
structures
 Total Filtration
 Filtration review…
 Total Filtration = _______________ +
_____________?

 The collimator assembly is usually equivalent

to approximately _______ mm Al filtration.

 Minimum filtration for tubes that can operate

about 70 kVp is _______ mm Al or equiv.
The Grid
 Contrast & Contrast
Resolution
 Two devices are used to reduce
Compton effect beam-restricting
devices and radiographic grids
 Beam-restricting devices effects
what reaches the patient. Grids
effect the remnant beam
 Contrast & Contrast
Resolution
 Contrast = the comparison of areas
of light, dark and shades of gray on
the image
 Contrast Resolution = the ability to
image adjacent similar tissues
 Grid Ratio
 High-ratio grids are more effective in
cleaning up scatter radiation than low-ratio
grids
 The angle of deviation is smaller for high-
ratio grids. (the photon must be traveling in
a straighter line to make it through the grid)
 However, the higher the ratio the more
radiation exposure necessary to get a
sufficient number of x-rays through the grid
to the IR
 Grid Ratio
 3 important dimensions on a grid: The
thickness of the grid strips, the width of
the interspace material, and the height
of the grid

 The grid ratio is the HEIGHT of the grid

divided by the INTERSPACE WIDTH:
Grid ratio = h
D
 h = height of the grid, T =
thickness of the grid strip, D =
width of the interspace material
 The higher the ratio the
straighter the photon must
travel to reach the IR
 Grid ratios range
from 5:1 to 16:1
 Most common

8:1 to 10:1
 A 5:1 grid will

clean up 85%
16:1 clean up 97%
 Grid Frequency
 The number of grid strips or grid
lines per inch or centimeter
 The higher the frequency the more
strips and less interspace material
and the higher the grid ratio
 As grid frequency increases, patient
does is increase because more
scatter will be absorbed
 Grid Frequency
 Some grids reduce the thickness of
the strips to reduce the exposure to
the patient, this over all reduces the
grid clean up

 Grids have frequencies in the range

of 25 to 45 lines per centimeter (60
to 110 lines per inch)
Higher frequency with the same
interspace distance reduces the
grid effectiveness
 Grid Performance
 The principal function of a grid is to
improve image contrast
 Contrast Improvement Factor (k) = the
ratio of the contrast of a radiograph
made with a grid to the contrast of the
radiograph made without a grid. A
contrast improvement factor of 1
indicates no improvements
 The higher the grid ratio & frequency
the higher the k
 Bucky Factor
 Using grids require more patient
dose. Why is this?

 When a grid is used technique must

be increased to maintain OD

 The amount of increase is given by

the Bucky factor (B) or grid factor
 Bucky Factor or grid
factor
 The higher the grid ratio or frequency
the higher the bucky factor

 The Bucky factor increases with

increasing kVp

 Pg 235: We will use the average

values for calculations.
 Selectivity or ability to
“clean up”
the heavier the grid the more Pb it
contains
 Grid Types
 Parallel Grid – simplest type of grid
 All the lead strips are parallel
 Only clean up scatter in one
direction (along the axis of the grid)

 Easy to make, however can cause

grid cutoff with short SID’s.
 Grid cutoff
 Distance to cutoff
SID
Grid ratio
 With decreasing
SID more potential
for grid cutoff
 IR size will also
Influence grid
cutoff
Grid Cutoff – Parallel grid

THE HIGHER-RATIO THE MORE CUTOFF POTENTIAL

 Crossed Grid
 Have lead strips running along the
long and short axes of the grid
 Made by placing two parallel grid on
top of each other
 Crossed Grid

 Have twice the grid ratio as linear

grids

 However, CR vs grid placement is

critical. The CR must align with the
center of the grid and the grid and CR
must be exactly parallel or grid cutoff
will occur
 Focused Grid
 Designed to minimize grid cutoff
 Lead strips are aligned with the
divergence of the x-ray beam

 Each focused grid must be identified

with the appropriate SID
 Wrong SID = Grid cutoff
 Focused grid have a little SID
latitude (eg. 100cm grid could be
used at 90cm – 110cm)
 Moving Grids
 All stationary grids will give you grid
lines on your radiograph. Thinner Pb
strips will give you less noticeable
lines. However, thinner strips have less
Pb content not “cleaning up” as well

 Grid Lines are made when primary x-

rays are absorbed in the grid strips.
 Focused grids are usually
used as moving grids
 The grid is placed in a holding
mechanism that begins moving just
before the x-ray exposure and
continues moving after the exposure
ends

 2 types of movement Reciprocating

& Oscillating
 Grid Motion
 Reciprocating = moves several times
about 2cm back and forth during the
exposure

 Oscillating = moves several times about

2 – 3 cm in a circular pattern

 Most grids are moving. Except for

portable imaging
 Grid Problems
 Increased OID, especially with
moving grids
 The biggest problem with grids is
GRID PROBLEMS
misalignment RESULT IN:
UNDEREXPOSED IMAGE
OR UNDEREXPOSED
EDGES OF IMAGE
Grid Problems – Off Level
 Grid Problems – Off
Center

 A problem with focused & crossed grids

Grid Problems – Off Focus
(wrong SID)
 Grid Problems – Upside-
Down

 A problem with focused & crossed grids

 Grid Selection
 Patient Dose
 Pg 241 – mAs changes
 Exam
 Detail required
 Part thickness
 Desired technique (kVp)
 Equipment availability
Questions….?