MIT-WPU

Analog Communication
 Unit-III
Angle Modulation
 Topics covered
• Concept of Angle Modulation
• Mathematical analysis of FM and PM
• Frequency spectrum
• NBFM and WBFM
• FM generation: Direct and Indirect methods
• Stereophonic FM broadcasting
• Commercial Standards
 Concept of Angle Modulation

• There are three parameters of a carrier that may

carry information:
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase
• Frequency and Phase modulation are closely
related and grouped together as phase
modulation
 Frequency Modulation
• Let the message signal be given by
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑚
• And carrier signal by
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑐
• Where 𝑉𝑐 is maximum amplitude of carrier (Volts)
ω𝑐 is angular velocity (rad/s)
𝜙𝑐 is phase angle (rad)
• If any one of these parameters is varied in accordance with
modulating signal then the resulting is called as modulated signal.
• When 𝑉𝑐 is varied in accordance with m(t), it results in amplitude
modulation
• Alternatively if ω𝑐 is varied in accordance with m(t), it results in
frequency modulation
• And if 𝜙𝑐 is varied in accordance with m(t), it results in phase
modulation
 What is frequency modulation?
• When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the message signal, The process is
called frequency modulation.
• In FM the carrier amplitude remain constant the carrier
frequency varies
• By the definition of frequency modulation, the amount
by which the carrier frequency is varied from its
unmodulated value, called the frequency deviation, is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating voltage.
• The rate at which this frequency variation takes place is
equal to modulating frequency.
5.7
 Mathematical Representation of FM
• The instantaneous frequency f of the frequency
modulated wave is given by
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡
• Where 𝑓𝑐 is unmodulated carrier frequency (Hz)
𝑘𝑓 is proportionality constant (Hz/V)
𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 is instantaneous modulating
voltage
• The maximum deviation in above equation is given
by
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚
• So that the max deviation δ𝑓 will be given by
δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚
 Mathematical Representation of FM
• The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a
formula of the form
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝑓 ω𝑐 , ω𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 sin θ
• Where 𝑓 ω𝑐 , ω𝑚 is function representing an angle θ.
• The function θ can be represented mathematically as integration
of angular velocity ω and
ω=ω𝑐 + 2π𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡
• In order to find θ from ω
• θ = ‫׬‬ω 𝑑𝑡 = ‫ ׬‬ω𝑐 + 2π𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2π𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• θ = ω𝑐 𝑡 +
ω𝑚
δ𝑓
• θ = ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
• Hence the instantaneous value of the FM voltage is given by
δ𝑓
• 𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
 FM modulation index

δ𝑓
𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + cos ω𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑚
• Hence FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the
frequency deviation to the modulating frequency.
• Thus the formula for the modulation index for FM is simply
given by
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
δ𝑓
𝑚𝑓 =
𝑓𝑚

• And the instantaneous value of FM voltage is

𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
 Phase Modulation
• When the phase of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the message signal, The process
is called phase modulation.
• In PM the carrier amplitude remain constant the
carrier phase varies
• Phase modulation is the system in which the
amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept
constant, while its phase and rate of phase change
are varied by the modulating signal.
• By the definition of PM the phase deviation is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating voltage.
• The rate at which this frequency variation takes
place is equal to modulating frequency.
 Mathematical Representation of PM
• The instantaneous phase 𝝓 of the PM wave is given
by
𝝓=𝝓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• Where 𝝓𝑐 is unmodulated carrier phase (rad)
𝑘𝑝 is proportionality constant (rad/V)
𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡 is the phase shifted version of
instantaneous modulating voltage.
• The maximum deviation in above equation is given
by
𝝓 = 𝝓𝑐 ± 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚
• So that the max deviation δ𝑓 will be given by
δ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚
 Mathematical Representation of PM
• The instantaneous amplitude of the PM signal will be given
by a formula of the form
𝑣𝑃𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑓 𝝓𝑐 , 𝝓𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 sin θ
• Where𝑓 𝝓𝑐 , 𝝓𝑚 is function representing an angle θ.
• The function θ can be represented mathematically follows
θ=ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑚 𝑡
• Hence the instantaneous value of the FM voltage is given by
• 𝑣𝑝𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑉𝑚 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
• The modulation index for PM , 𝑚𝑝 , is defined as
𝑚𝑝 = 𝜹𝑝
• 𝑣𝑝𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 sin ω𝑐 𝑡 + 𝝓𝑐 + 𝑚𝑝 cos ω𝑚 𝑡
 Comparison of FM and PM
• The similarity is that FM is a form of PM
• The modulation index in FM is directly proportional
to amplitude of modulating signal and inversely
proportional to frequency of modulating signal
• Whereas the modulation index in PM is directly
proportional to amplitude of modulating signal only.
• Hence under constant modulating frequency both
frequency and phase deviation are only dependent
on modulating voltage
• Except for the way of defining modulation index,
there is no difference between FM & PM.
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM wave
• It was possible to tell at a glance that frequencies were
present in the AM modulated wave equation.
• Unfortunately it is very complex in FM wave.
• The instantaneous voltage expression of FM signal may be
expanded by Bessel function as follows
𝑣𝑓𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 ൛𝐽0 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 𝑡
+ 𝐽1 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − ω𝑚
+ 𝐽2 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + 2ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − 2ω𝑚
+ 𝐽3 𝑚𝑓 sin ω𝑐 + 3ω𝑚 − sin ω𝑐 − 3ω𝑚
• The solution is
2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 2 𝑦=0
𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑓 − 𝑛
𝑑𝑚𝑓2 𝑑𝑚𝑓
2 4 6
𝑚𝑓 𝑛 1 𝑚𝑓 Τ2 𝑚𝑓 Τ2 𝑚𝑓 Τ2
𝐽𝑛 𝑚𝑓 = − + − +⋯
2 𝑛! 1! 𝑛 + 1 ! 2! 𝑛 + 2 ! 3! 𝑛 + 3 !
 Frequency Spectrum of the FM wave
1. FM has an infinite number of sidebands
2. The 𝐽 coefficient eventually decreases in value as n increases
3. The modulation index determines how many sideband components
have significant amplitudes.
4. The sidebands at equal distances from 𝑓𝑐 have equal amplitudes.
(symmetrical)
5. Negative sign of 𝐽 indicated 180⁰ phase change.
6. As 𝑚𝑓 increases, the value of 𝐽 coefficient also increases.
7. In FM the total transmitted power always remains constant, but with
increased depth of modulation the required BW is increased.
8. The theoretical BW required in FM is infinite.
9. In FM the amplitude of the carrier component does not remain
constant.
10. It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear
completely.
Frequency Spectrum of the FM wave
 Classification of FM wave
• Depending on the bandwidth occupied by the FM for practical
transmission, FM is classified into narrowband and wideband FM.
• BW is directly proportional to modulation index.
• WBFM is defined as that in which modulation index exceeds unity.
• NBFM is used in FM mobile communication like Police ambulance,
taxicabs, radio-controlled appliances etc
• Whereas WBFM is used for entertainment.
 Advantages

1. Amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains

unaffected.

2. Large decrease in noise, hence increase in S/N ratio.

3. Noise may reduce by increasing deviation.

4. Frequency allocation allows for a guard band which

reduces adjacent channel interference.

5. Operate In Very high frequency (VHF).

 Disadvantages

1. FM wave can’t cover large area.

2. Transmitting & receiving equipments for FM

are complex & costly.

3. A much wider channel, typically 200 kHz, is

needed for FM.
 Comparison of FM and AM
Sr. FM
No.
1 FM receivers are immune to
noise
2 It is possible to decrease noise
by increasing deviation
3 Bandwidth is higher and
depends on modulation index
4 FM transmission and reception
equipment are more complex
5 All transmitted power is useful
AM
AM receivers are not immune
to noise
This feature is absent in AM
Bandwidth is lower compared
to FM but independent of
modulation index
AM transmission and
reception equipment are less
complex
Carrier power and one
sideband power is useless
 Applications:

FM Radio
FM radio uses a modulation index, m > 1, and this is called
wideband FM. As its name suggests the bandwidth is much larger
than AM.

In national radio broadcasts using FM, the frequency deviation of

the carrier  fc , is chosen to be 75kHz, and the information
baseband is the high fidelity range 20Hz to 15kHz.
BW of FM radio=2(75k+15k)
=180khz
Television Sound:
In terrestrial TV broadcasts, the video information is
transmitted using AM . However the sound information is transmitted
using FM, in order to reduce possible interference between the video
and sound signals. In this case, the maximum deviation of the carrier,
 fc , is chosen to be 50kHz, and the information baseband is again the
high fidelity range 20Hz to 15kHz. Therefore the bandwidth required
for TV Sound is:BW Of TV Sound=2(50k+15k) =130khz
Satellite TV.
Some satellite TV transmissions broadcast an analogue video
signal using FM. This helps to obtain an acceptable signal at the
receiving station In this case, the maximum deviation of the carrier 
fc , is chosen to be about 10 MHz, with a video baseband of around
5MHz. Therefore the bandwidth required for Satellite TV is:
BW of satellite TV =2(10+5)
=30Mhz
 Noise and Frequency Modulation
• Example when max frequency deviation is 75KHz and modulating frequency is
15KHz, the modulation index in FM is 5.
• Signal to noise ratio in FM is proportional to square of depth of modulation.
• So when m=5 there will be a 25:1 (14 dB) improvement for FM.
• No such improvement is possible in AM.
• FM will be 4.75dB better than PM for noise.
 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
The noise triangle showed that noise has a greater effect on the
higher modulating frequency than on the lower ones. Thus , if the
higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and
correspondingly cut at the receiver, an improvement in noise
immunity could be expected, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise
ratio. This boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in
accordance with a prearranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and
the compensation at receiver is called de-emphasis.
Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
 Stereophonic FM Multiplex System
SCA (Subsidiary Communications Authorization) signal
 Generation of Frequency Modulation
• The generation of FM can be done by the ways
• Direct Method
• Indirect Method
• Direct Method: The most common are
• Reactance modulator
• Varactor Diode
 Basic Reactance modulator
𝑅𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖𝑏 𝑅 =
𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
The FET drain current is
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑣
𝑖 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
Therefore the impedance seen at the terminals A-A is
𝑣 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑣 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 1 𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝑧= =𝑣÷ = = 1−
𝑖 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 𝑔𝑚 𝑅 𝑔𝑚 𝑅
If 𝑋𝐶 ≫ 𝑅 in above equation, then the equation becomes
𝑋𝐶
𝑧 = −𝑗
𝑔𝑚 𝑅
This impedance is quite clearly capacitive reactance, and hence
𝑋𝐶 1 1
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = = =
𝑔𝑚 𝑅 2π𝑓𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 2π𝑓𝐶𝑒𝑞
Under such conditions the input impedance of the device is a pure
reactance and is given by
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
 Basic Reactance modulator
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
We can conclude from above equation that
1. This capacitance depends on the trans conductance and can therefore be varied
with bias voltage.
2. The capacitance can be adjusted to any value , by varying the components R and C.
3. The expression has the correct dimension of capacitance.
4. The gate-to-drain impedance must be much larger than the gate-to-source
impedance, otherwise z would have had a resistive component.
• Let 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑛𝑅 then
1
𝑋𝐶 = = 𝑛𝑅
ω𝐶
1 1
𝐶= =
ω𝑛𝑅 2π𝑓𝑛𝑅
𝑔𝑚 𝑅
Then 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 =
2π𝑓𝑛𝑅
𝑔𝑚
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2π𝑓𝑛
 Types of Reactance modulator

Name 𝑍𝑔𝑑 𝑍𝑔𝑠 Condition Reactance Frequency

RC capacitive C R 𝑋𝐶 R 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
RC inductive R C R 𝑋𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝑔𝑚
RL inductive L R 𝑋𝐿 R 𝐿
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝑔𝑚 𝑅
RL capacitive R L R 𝑋𝐿 𝑔𝑚 𝐿
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅
 Transistor Reactance modulator
• RC capacitive transistor reactance modulator.
• Clapp-Gouriet Oscillators are most commonly used, and each is
isolated with RF chokes in the circuit as shown.
• Also known as tuned-base-tuned-collector oscillator.
 Varactor Diode Modulator
• A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction
capacitance varies linearly with the applied voltage when the
diode is reverse-biased.
• Varactor diodes are employed together with a reactance
modulator to provide automatic frequency correction in FM
transmitter.
• This is simplest reactance modulator circuit.
• It is often used for Automatic frequency control and remote
tuning.
 Stabilized Reactance Modulator - AFC
• Frequency stabilization of reactance modulator is required as in
crystal oscillator.
• Hence a Automatic Frequency Control system is used in typical
transmitter system as shown in figure below.
 Generation of FM using Indirect Method
• Drawback of Direct method
– The main disadvantage of using direct method is that the
frequency of LC oscillator is not stable.
– Hence can not be used for broadcasting purpose
• To overcome this the FM generator making use of crystal
oscillator is invented and named as Armstrong system after its
inventor.
Armstrong FM system