Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 8 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Basic bluff-body aerodynamics I

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Streamlined body
• - flow follows contours of body :

• Bluff body
• - flow separates :

• vortices formed by rolling up of shear layers - may re-attach

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Bernoulli’s equation :
1
p  aU 2  a constant
2

applicable in inviscid (zero viscosity) and irrotational (zero vorticity) flow

- outside of boundary layers and free shear layers

1 1
p  aU 2  p0   aU 02
2 2

p0 and U0 are pressure and velocity in region outside of influence of body

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Surface pressure coefficient :

p  p0
Cp 
1
 aU 02
2

in regions in which Bernoulli’s Equation is valid :

1

 a U 02  U 2   U 
2

Cp  2  1   
1  U0 
 aU 02
2

U=0 Cp = 1.0 (stagnation point)

U > U0 Cp < 0

approximately valid in separated flows if U is taken as velocity in flow just

outside adjacent shear layer
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Force coefficient :
F
CF 
1
 aU 02 A
2
reference area, A, - arbitary but often projected area

Force per unit length coefficient :

f
Cf 
1
 aU 02b
2

b = reference length - often projected width normal to wind

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Wind axes : • Body axes :

 = angle of attack
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Relationship between force coefficients in two axes systems :

Fx = D cos  - L sin 
Fy = D sin  - L cos 
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Dependence of pressure/force coefficients on other non-dimensional

groups :
Cp = f(1, 2, 3 etc…)

Examples of ’s :
h/zo - Jensen Number (h is height of building)

Iu, Iv, Iw - turbulence intensities

lu/h, lv/h, lw/h - turbulence length scale ratios

Uh/ - Reynolds Number ( is kinematic viscosity)

In wind tunnel testing - try to match ’s in full scale and model scale
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Reynolds Number

Re = Uh/ = aUh/

 = kinematic viscosity  = dynamic viscosity

Reynolds Number represents a ratio of inertial forces to viscous

forces in the flow

full-scale values of Re cannot be matched in wind tunnel tests

dependence of flow on Re - less for sharp-edged bluff bodies,

and very turbulent flow
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Jensen Number

Je = h/z0

z0 = roughness length

Applicable only to bluff bodies immersed in a turbulent boundary

layer (full-scale or wind-tunnel)

Lower values of Je - steeper mean speed profile, higher turbulence

Ref. Lecture 6, Chapter 3

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Flat plates and walls normal to flow

Advertising hoardings, free-standing walls

Drag force, D = (pW - pL) A

pW = average pressure on windward wall

pL = average pressure on leeward wall

dividing both sides by (1/2) a U2A :

CD = Cp,W – Cp,L = Cp,W + (– Cp,L)

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Flat plates and walls normal to flow

SQUARE PLATE
Shear layer
Smooth flow Turbulent flow

CD = 1.1 CD = 1.2

Turbulence decreases (more negative) leeward side or ‘base’

pressure by increasing entrainment of flow from wake by
‘shear’ layers
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Flat plates and walls normal to flow

TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLATE

Smooth flow

CD = 1.9

No flow path around the sides (out of screen) - strong vortex generation
and shedding - lower base pressure - higher drag
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• Flat plates and walls normal to flow

TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLATE

splitter plate

CD = 1.4

Splitter plate induces re-attachment of flow - weaker, smaller vortices -

lower drag
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• walls normal to flow

CD = 1.2 CD = 1.1

Ground Ground

TWO-DIMENSIONAL WALL SQUARE WALL

Walls on ground - boundary layer flow : U taken as Uh (top of wall)

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• walls normal to flow

Only slight dependency of CD on length / height (b/h)

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• two square plates in series normal to flow

Spacing  0

b Combined Cd  1.1
acts like a single plate

1.5b

combined drag is less

Combined Cd  0.8
than single plate
(critical spacing = 1.5b)
Spacing  

acts like two single plates

Combined Cd  2.2
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• porous plate

CD, = CD . Kp
Kp = porosity factor,

Kp  1- (1-)2

 = solidity = solid area/total area

Kp : not sensitive to shape of openings

(plate could be a truss with linear members)
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• inclined plate

Primarily normal force

(negligible tangential component)
CN  2

 For angle of attack,  < 10 degrees,

h
CN  2 
4

( in radians)

reference area : plan area normal to surface

Centre of pressure at h/4 from leading edge

 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• inclined plate

CN = 1.5
0.4h

45o

As  increases, centre of pressure moves

towards centre of plate
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• rectangular prism (two dimensional)

3
Smooth flow d
105<Re<106
2
Cd
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
d/b

Maximum Cd at d/b 0.7

For d/b > 0.7, shear layers re-attach to sides of prism - drag is lower
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• rectangular prism (two dimensional)

Effect of turbulence
4
b

3 d
0.33
Cd 0.50
2
0.62

1.0
1

0 0 4 8 12 16 20
Iu(%)

With increasing turbulence intensity, d/b ratio for maximum Cd falls

Turbulence promotes increased curvature of shear layers -

reattachment occurs at lower d/b ratio (shorter after-body length)
 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics

• rectangular prism (two dimensional)

Effect of turbulence
Decreased radius of curvature and
hence lower pressure due to
increased rate of entrainment of
wake fluid into the more turbulent Partial
shear layer. reattachment
lower drag
Higher
drag

d
Lower Higher
drag drag
d/b = 0.1
Low d/b  0.5
turbulence
High
turbulence
 End of Lecture 8

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu