Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Basic requirements
• High strength and stiffness
• Low density
=> high specific properties e.g. strength/density, yield strength/density,
E/density
• High corrossion resistance
• Fatigue resistance and damage tolerance
• Good technology properties (formability, machinability, weldability)
• Special aerospace standards and specifications
other materials
pure AlZnMgCu
alloys
wood
AlCuMg alloys
pure AlCuMg
alloys
new Al
alloys
steel
Year
Structural materials on small transport aeroplane
Development of composite
aerospace applications over the last 40 years
Composite share in military aircraft structures in USA and
Europe
Advantages Shortcomings
• Low hardness, susceptibility to
• Low density 2.47- 2.89 g/cm³ surface damage
• Good specific properties – Rm/ρ, E/ ρ • High strength alloys (containing Cu)
• Generally very good corrosion need additional anti-corrosion
resistance (exception alloys with protection:
Cu) – Cladding – surface protection using
• Mostly good weldability – mainly a thin layer of pure aluminium or
using pressure methods alloy with the good corrosion
resistance
• Good machinability
– Anodizing – forming of surface oxide
• Good formability layer (Al2O3)
• Great range of semifinished • It is difficult to weld high strength
products alloys by fusion welding
(sheet, rods, tubes etc.) • Danger of electrochemical corrosion
• Long-lasting experience due to contact with metals:
• Acceptable price – Al-Cu, Al-Ni alloys, Al-Mg alloys, Al-
steel
Designation of aluminium alloys according to EN
• O - anealing
• W - solution treating + quenching (non stabil state)
• H - strain-hardening (strength is increased only due to cold working)
• T3 - solution treating + quenching + cold working + room
temperature aging
• T351 - solution treating + quenching + stress relief due to controlled
stretching + room temperature aging
• T4 - solution treating + quenching + room temperature aging
• T6 - solution treating + quenching + artificial aging
• T651- solution treating + quenching + stress relief due to controlled streching +
artificial aging
• T7 - solution treating + quenching + artificial overaging
• T73 - solution treating + quenching + artificial overaging for the best stress
corrosion resistance
• T8 - solution treating + quenching + cold working + artificial aging
Reference aluminium alloys in airframe structure
0 186 97 18 90
0 172 69 21 -
T3 434 273 20 -
Typical mechanical properties of alloy 2024
4.4Cu-1.5Mg-0.6Mn, E = 72.4 GPa , ρ = 2 .77 g/ccm
0 185 75 20 90
Alclad 2024
0 180 75 20 -
T3 450 310 18 -
Plate 2124 - LT
Plate 2124 - ST
Better transvers properties, good strengths and creep resistance at higher temperatures -
for application between 120 – 175 °C.
Typical mechanical properties of alloy 6061
1.0Mg-0.6Si-0.3Cu-0.2Cr ; E = 68.9 GPa; ρ = 2 .70 g/ccm
0 124 55 25 62
T4 241 145 22 97
T6 310 276 12 97
Alclad 6061
0 117 48 25 -
T4 228 131 22 -
Minimal mechanical properties of alloy 6056
1.0Si-0.9Mg-0.8Cu-0.7Mn-0.25Cr-0.2Ti+Zr; ρ = 2 .72 g/ccm
Bare sheet - LT
T4 265 135 18 -
0 228 103 17 -
Alclad 7075
0 221 97 17 -
L 530 527 3
T 83
(near peak aged) LT 505 503 6
A letter ahead of designation marks alloys with the same content of main
alloying elements but with different content of impurities or micro alloying
elements.(e.g. 201 - A201, 356 - A356, 357 - A357)
Additional digit .0 means shape casting, digit .1 or .2 ingots
• Typical castings in aircraft structures
Mechanical properties
Alloy Temper
Rm Rp0,2 HB A
MPa MPa %
A 356.0 F 159 83 - 6
AlSi7Mg0,35 T6 278 207 75 6
T61* 283 207 90 10
A 357.0 T6 317 248 85 3
AlSi7Mg0,55ZnBe0,05 T6* 359 290 100 5
• Pure magnesium
– Hexagonal crystal lattice
– ρ=1,74 g/cm³ , Rm=190 MPa, Rp0,2=95 MPa
– Used in metallurgy (alloying element in Al alloys, titanium metallurgy, ductile iron
metallurgy).
– Not used for structural purposes – magnesium alloys have better utility values
• Advantages of Mg alloys
– Low density (ρ = 1,76–1,99 g/cm³ ) → high specific strength (Rm/ ρ)
– Comparing Al alloys, lower rate of strength decrease in relation with temperature
– Lower notch sensitivity and higher specific strength at vibrating loads
– High damping capacity (influence of low modulus of elasticity ~47GPa)
– High specific bending stiffness (higher to 50 % comparing steel, to 20 % comparing Al)
→ high resistance against buckling
– High specific heat → minor temperature increasing at short time heating
– Very good machinability
– Applicability – most alloys up to 150 °C, some of them up to 350 °C.
• Shortcomings of Mg alloys
– High reactivity at increased temperatures
• Above 450 °C rapid oxidation, above 620 °C ignition (fine chips, powder)
• Melting and casting – protection against oxidation (chlorides, fluorides, oxides Mg,
powder sulfur, gases SO2, CO2).
– Low formability at room temperature - most alloys cannot be formed without heating
– After forming – high strength anisotropy along and crosswise deformation –→
differences 20 to 30 %.
– Low shear strength and notch impact strength
– Low wear resistance
– Low diffusion rate during heat treatment → longtime processes , artificial aging is
necessary at precipitation hardening
– Relatively difficult joining – possible electrochemical corrosion, limited weldability
(hot cracking, weld porosity, possible welding techniques - inert gas welding, spot
welding)
Designation of Mg alloys
• Mg-Al-Zn (AZ)alloys
– The most common alloys in aircraft industry, applicable up to 150 °C
– Composition – 3 to 9 % Al, 0.2 to 1.5 % Zn, 0.15 to 0.5 % Mn
– Increasing Al content → strength improvement , but growth of susceptibility
to stress corrosion
– Zn → ductility improvement
– (Cd + Ag) as Zn replacement → high strength up to 430 MPa
– Precipitation hardening → strength improvement + decrease of ductility
– The most common alloy for sheet and plates – AZ31B (applicable to 100 °C)
• Mg-Th-Mn (HM)
– Medium strength
– Creep resistance → service temperature up to 400 °C
• Mg-Y-RE (WE)
– Hardenability, formability, good weldability
– Y → strength after hardening, Nd → heat resistance, Zr → grain refinement
– Application to 250 °C
• Basic advantages of Ti
– Lower density comparing steel ( ρ = 4.55 g/cm³)
– High specific strength at temperatures 250 – 500 °C, when alloys Al, Mg already cannot
be used
– High strength also at temperatures deep below freezing point
– Good fatigue resistance (if the surface is smooth, without grooves or notches)
– Excellent corrosion resistance due to stabile layer of Ti oxide
– Good cold formability, some alloys show superplasticity
– Low thermal expansion => low thermal stresses
• Shortages of titanium
– High manufacturing costs => high prices (~8x higher comparing Al)
– Chemical reactivity above 500 °C – intensive reactions with O2, H2, N2, with refractory
materials of furnaces and foundry molds => brittle layers, which are removed with
difficulties
– Lower modulus of elasticity comparing steel ( E = 115 GPa against 210 GPa)
– Poor friction properties, tendency for seizing
– Poor machinability (low thermal conductivity → local overheating, adhering on tool,
above 1200 °C danger of chips and powder ignition.
– Welding problems (reactivity with atmospheric gases => welding in inert gas, diffusion
welding, laser beam welding, electron beam welding)
– Special manufacturing methods (vacuum melting and heat treating, manufacture of
castings in special molds – graphite molds and/or ceramic molds with a layer of carbon,
hot isostatic pressing - HIP)
Today, the most common man-made composites can be divided into three main
groups:
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC’s) – These are the most common and will
be discussed here. Also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics)
– these materials use a polymer-based resin as the matrix, and a variety of fibres
such as glass, carbon and aramid as the reinforcement.
Properties of unidirectional
composite material
Main resin systems
• Epoxy Resins
The large family of epoxy resins represent some of the highest performance resins of those
available at this time. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of
mechanical properties and resistance to environmental degradation, which leads to their
almost exclusive use in aircraft components
• Phenolics
Primarily used where high fire-resistance is required, phenolics also retain their properties
well at elevated temperatures.
• Bismaleimides (BMI)
• Polyimides
Used where operation at higher temperatures than bismaleimides can stand is required (use
up to 250 °C wet/300 °C dry). Typical applications include missile and aero-engine
components. Extremely expensive resin.
Fabric types and constructions
• Unidirectional fabrics
– The majority of fibres run in one direction only, a small amount of fibre may run in
other directions to hold the primary fibres in position
– Prepreg unidirectional tape- only the resin system holds the fibres in place
– The best mechanical properties in the direction of fibres
• Basic woven fabrics
– Plain -Each warp fibre passes alternately under
and over each weft fibre. The fabric is
symmetrical, with good stability. However,
it is the most difficult of the weaves to drape.
– Twill - One or more warp fibres alternately weave
over and under two or more weft fibres in a regular
repeated manner. Superior wet out and drape,
smoother surface and slightly higher mechanical
properties
Fabric types and constructions – cont.
– Basket -Basket weave is fundamentally the same
as plain weave except that two or more warp fibres
alternately interlace with two or more weft fibres.
An arrangement of two warps crossing two wefts
is designated 2x2 basket.It is possible to have 8x2,
5x4, etc. Basket weave is flatter, and, through
less crimp, stronger than a plain weave, but less stable.
• Hybrid fabric
– A hybrid fabric will allow the two fibres to be presented in just one layer of fabric.
– Carbon / Aramid - The high impact resistance and tensile strength of the aramid
fibre combines with high the compressive and tensile strength of carbon.
– Aramid / Glass - The low density, high impact resistance and tensile strength of
aramid fibre combines with the good compressive and tensile strength of glass,
coupled with its lower cost.
– Carbon / Glass - Carbon fibre contributes high tensile compressive strength and
stiffness and reduces the density, while glass reduces the cost.
Properties of composites
• Consist of
alternating thin
metal layers and
uniaxial or biaxial
glass, aramid or
carbon fiber
prepregs
Fibre metal laminates
• Developed types
- ARALL - Aramid Reinforced ALuminium Laminates (TU-DELFT)
- GLARE - GLAss REinforced (TU-DELFT)
- CARE - CArbon REinforced (TU-DELFT)
- Titanium CARE (TU-DELFT)
- HTCL - Hybrid Titanium Composite Laminates (NASA)
- CAREST – CArbon REinforced Steel (BUT - IAE)
- - T iGr – Titanium Graphite Hybrid Laminate (The Boeing Company)
• Advantages
Fibre metal laminates produce remarkable improvements in fatigue
resistance and damage tolerance characteristics due to bridging
influence of fibres. They also offer weight and cost reduction and
improved safety, e.g. flame resistance. They can be formed to limited
grade.
Standard FML configurations
Type Configuration Metal alloy Prepreg Prepreg
constituents orientation