SPC Course Material

Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
Participants Name:-

Contact us:
Head Office
No. 150, 12th Cross, 16th Main,
Sri Manjunatha Society,
BTM Layout 1st Stage, Bangalore – 560 029
Ph: 080-26842672 / 9341262149/9741303741
E-mail:- zdconsultant@satyam.net.in
Website: www.zdconsultants.in
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 1

WELCOME TO ALL
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 2

Training Contents
Day 1:-
 Introduction to SPC
 Types of Process Controls
 Introduction to Statistics
 Understanding Mean, Mode, Median, Range, Standard Deviation
 Concept of Variation – Special cause & common causes
 Stable & Unstable Process
 Approach towards identification of Special Causes
 Histogram – An illustration
 Normal Distribution
 Process Capability
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Training Contents
Day 2:-
 Introduction to Control Charts
 Types of Control Charts
 Understanding application, methodology, interpretations of various
types of charts (Variable and Attribute type covered)
 Exercises on Control Charts
 SPC implementation methodology
 Role of Operator in implementing SPC.
 Common mistakes done in implementing SPC
 Conclusion
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Introduction to SPC
Process:-
Convert input to output using Man, Machine, Material, Method,
Measurement.
Input Process Output

(Man, M/c, Material,
Method)
Measure & give

Feedback
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Process Control:-
Variation in the output of the process is natural. Hence the process needs to
be controlled in order to ensure that output is meeting the customer
requirements.
Tools for Process Control:-
Detection :- A strategy that attempts to identify unacceptable output

after it has been produced and then separate it from the good output.
Prevention :- A future oriented strategy by analysis and action toward

correcting the process itself so that unacceptable parts will not be
produced.
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Need for Process Control
Detection :- Tolerates Waste
Prevention :- Avoids Waste
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Techniques for Process Control
Mistake Proofing :- In this technique 100% process control is achieved by
preventing all types of failures by using modern techniques to get defect
free product. Here causes are prevented from making the effect.
100% Inspection : In this technique 100% checking of all the parameters of

all products has been done to get defect free product. Here only defects are
detected.
Statistical Process Control : In this Statistical technique such as Control

Chart, Histogram etc. are used to analyses the process to achieve and
maintain state of statistical control to get defect free product. Causes are
detected and prompting CA before defect occurs
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Statistics
Collection of Data, Analysis and Conclusion
It is a value calculated from or based upon sample data (e.g. a subgroup

average or range) used to make inferences about the process that produces
the output.
E.g. Analysis of rejection data and initiating actions to reduce the rejection
level.
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What is Statistical Process Control
The use of Statistical techniques such as control charts to analyze a process
or it’s outputs so as to take appropriate actions, to achieve and maintain a
state of statistical control and to improve the process capability.
SPC is
 A tool to detect variation
 It identifies problems, it does not solve problems
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 10

Introduction to Statistics
Data:
Any facts or numbers or observations made.
Set of observations forms the data.
Types of Data:
 Variable data
 Attribute data
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Variable Data
Data generated by
 Physically measuring the characteristic using an

instrument
 Assigning an unique value to each item
Examples:
Hardness, Strength, Weight, Diameter, etc.
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Attribute Data
Data generated by
 Classifying the items into different groups based on some criteria

 No physical measurement is involved
 All the items classified into a group will have same value – I.e OK
or Not Ok.
Examples:
Sex, Shade Variation, Surface Defects, Go-No GO, etc.
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Statistical Properties of Data
 Observations collected needs to be analyzed using various properties.

 Statistical properties of data helps in arriving at one value representing
all observations.
Two types of properties

 Measure of location
 Measure of Dispersion
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Measure of Location
 Mean (Average)
 Median
 Mode
Measure of Dispersion
 Range
 Standard Deviation
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Mean:
• Numerical value indicating the central value of data
• Sum of all data / Total number of data
Suppose x1, x2, - - - xn be the data, then

Mean = (x1+ x2 + - - -+ xn ) / n = xi /n
Example Hardness Data
Mean:
= (55 + 65 + 59 + 59 + 57 + 61 + 53 + 63 + 59 + 57 + 63 + 55 + 61 + 61 + 57 +
59 + 61 + 57 + 59 + 63) / 20
= 1184 / 20 = 59.2
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Median:
• Middle Value
• Value which divides data arranged in ascending or descending order
into two equal halves
Case 1: Total number of data is odd

Median: Middle Value
Case 2: Total number of data is even

Median: Average of two middle values
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Median: Example Productivity Data
0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.03
Total Number of data: 20 (even)

The middle Values : 1.00 & 1.00 (10th value and 11th value)
Median: Average of 2 middle value
(1.00 + 1.00) / 2 = 1.00
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Mode:
Highest no. of times an observation has occurred (Highest frequency)

Mode: Example Productivity Data
0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.03
0.97 - 1
0.98 - 2
0.99 - 4
1.00 - 5 - 1.00 is Mode as this occurred more no. of times
1.01 - 4
1.02 - 3
1.03 - 1
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Range: Definition
Range: Maximum value – Minimum Value
Range: Issues
It depends only on extreme values
Hence affected by outliers
Example:
5 4 7 3 2
15 9 8 5 2
Maximum Value = 15
Minimum Value = 2
Range = 15 – 2 = 13
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Range: Issues
16
14
12
10
8 Range
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Standard Deviation: Definition
Square root of the average squared deviation from mean

Indicates On an average how much each value is away from the Mean
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Standard Deviation: Example:

Below data indicates the Money held by ten students in a class room.
5 4 7 3 2
15 9 8 5 2
Step 1:
Calculate Mean
Mean = 6
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5 4 7 3 2
15 9 8 5 2
Step 2:
Take deviations from Mean
-1 -2 1 -3 -4
9 3 2 -1 -4
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Step 2:
Take deviations from Mean
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Step 3:
Since some values are positive & rest are negative, while
taking sum they will cancel out.
So square the values & Sum
1 4 1 9 16
81 9 4 1 16
Sum = 142
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Step 4:
Standard Deviation = (Sum of Squares / (n -1))
= (142 / (10 -1))
=  15.77 = 3.972
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Variation
• No two things are exactly alike
• It is impossible to produce or process two items exactly alike
• Variation is natural.
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Example:
Time to reach office : 9:30 am

It is not possible to reach office exactly at 9:30 everyday
Normally there will be a small variation around 9:30 as follows:
9:31 9:33 9:28 9:29 9:25
9:34 9:26 9:27 9:34 9:31
This small variation is difficult to explain.
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Generally
Looking at the past values, it is possible to give some range
around 9:30 am (e.g.: 9:30 ± 5 Minutes) to reach office
Normally it is possible to reach office within this range
Suppose
A particular day , there is vehicle break down
that day it may not be possible to reach office at 9:30 ± 5 Minutes
Say, you reach office at 9:50 am
In other words
If you reach office too late (beyond normal range of 9:30 ± 5 minutes),
there will be some special reason for that or
it is easy to find out the reason for such variation
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Assignable Cause of Variation (Special Causes)
• Variations of large magnitude

• Easy to identify the causes of variation
• Easy to eliminate the cause of variation
Common Cause of Variation
• Variations of small magnitude

• Difficult to identify the causes of variation
• Difficult to eliminate the cause of variation
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Local Actions
• Are usually required to eliminate special causes of Variation

• Can usually taken by the people close to the process
• Can correct typically about 15% of process problem
Actions on the System
• Are usually required to reduce the variation due to common causes

• Almost always require management actions for correction
• Are needed to correct typically about 85% of process problems
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Stable Process
• No Assignable Causes are present
• Process is operating under common causes only
• Stable process will be predictable & Statistically under control.
If a process is stable & the data follows normal distribution

Then the variation will be Mean ± 3 x Standard deviation
Unstable Process
• Assignable Causes are present
• Process is operating under assignable & common causes.
• Unstable process is unpredictable & not under Statistical control.
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Methodology to Identify Assignable Causes
The success of any SPC program is not in our ability to collect data, draw
charts etc., but in effectively identifying and eliminating assignable causes.
Assignable causes are those causes that do not allow one to predict the
behavior of processes.
There is no meaning in calculating Process Capability without having a

predictable process.
Many companies have initiated SPC charts. But the charts do not benefit
them. One of the main reason for this is that they have not stopped the
process when an assignable cause is indicated and eliminated the cause
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 34

Methodology to Identify Assignable Causes
Before starting the SPC data collection, let us do the following steps:

1. Identify the characteristic for which SPC is to be done.
2. Have a brainstorming to list all the causes that may influence the
variation in this characteristic
3. Prepare a Cause & Effect Diagram
4. Prepare a Master Cause Analysis Table (Annexure 1)
5. Prepare a Why-Why Analysis Table (Annexure 2)
6. Identify factors that may affect Average and those that may affect Range

After completion of the above, plan for data collection & implementation of
SPC.
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Master Cause Analysis (Annexure 1)
Sl. Cause Is there If so, Basis for Is it What is Diff. Action

No a spec? what is the checke the in plan
. the spec. d and actual? Spec.
spec? how? Vs
Actual

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 36

Why Why Analysis (Annexure 2)
Sl. Cause WHY WHY WHY WHY WHY
No.

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HISTOGRAM
 Histogram is a graphical representation of data and shows the
frequency of data.
 Histogram provides the easiest way to understand the distribution of
data. It gives the Birds eye view of the variation in Data set.
 Portrays the information on location, spread and shape that enables
the user to interpret the Process behavior.
 It indicates whether the process is operating under Normal / stable
conditions.
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DEFINITIONS
Class:- Is a category with lower and upper boundary value.
Class Width:- Width of the class.
Frequency:- No. of observations falling in the class.
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STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING HISTOGRAM

 Collect Min 50 no. of readings (N). 50 readings should be continuous
data.
 Determine Max value and Min value & Calculate Range.
Range = Max – Min.
 Record the measurement unit (MU) used. This is usually controlled by
the measuring instrument least count.
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STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING HISTOGRAM – Contd..

 Determine No. of classes (k), as below.
No. of Class (k) = N
 Determine Class Width (CW), as below
Class Width (CW) = Range / k
 Construct the Frequency Distribution Table, as shown in the next
slide.
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Frequency Distribution Table
Class Tally Frequency
L1 – U1
L2 – U2
…
Upto Max value
Total N
Where L1 = Minimum value – (1/2*Measurement Unit)

U1 = L1 + Class Width
L2 = U1,
U2 = L2 + Class Width & so on.
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STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING HISTOGRAM – Contd..

 Determine the axis for the graph. Place “Class” on X axis and
“Frequency” on Y axis.
 Mark off the classes, and draw rectangles with heights corresponding
to the measurement frequencies in that class.
 Title the histogram. Give an overall title and identify each axis.
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 43

HISTOGRAM – GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION.
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HISTOGRAM – INTERPRETATIONS:
NORMAL
• Depicted by a bell-shaped curve. Most frequent measurement

appears as center of distribution & less frequent measurements taper
gradually at both ends of distribution.
• Indicates that a process is running normally (only common causes are
present).
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BIMODAL
 Distribution appears to have two peaks. May indicate that data from
more than one process are mixed together
• Materials may come from 2 separate vendors
• Samples may have come from 2 separate machines.
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SKEWED
• Appears as an uneven curve; values seem to taper to one side.

• Can be skewed left side or right side.
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Normal Distribution
Consider the following data on the case depth(mm) of 9 jobs:
2.3 2.7 2.4 2.6 2.5
2.5 2.4 2.5 2.6
Plot of the Data:
4
0
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
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Plot of the Data:
0
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
• Bell Shaped
• Symmetric
• Total Area under the curve is 1
Then : Normal Curve & Data follows Normal Distribution
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Standard Normal Distribution:
If
Data follows Normal Distribution then
(Data - Mean) / SD will follow Standard Normal Distribution
For Standard Normal Distribution:

Mean = 0
SD = 1
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Standard Normal Distribution: Properties
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
68.26%
95.46%
99.73%
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 51

Normal Distribution: Properties
Between
Mean  1 SD : 68.26 % of Values will lie
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 52

Process Capability
• A methodology to check whether a process is capable of meeting customer
requirements
• Determined by the variation that comes from common causes
• Expressed as Process Capability Indices
• This needs to be demonstrated when process is being under statistical control
Process Capability Indices

1. Process Potential Index ( Pp or Cp )
2. Process Performance Index ( Ppk or Cpk )
Types of Process Capability Study
1. Preliminary Process Capability Study (Pp & Ppk)
2. Ongoing Process Capability Study (Cp & Cpk)
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 53

Process Potential Index (Pp or Cp)
A methodology to check whether the process have the potential to meet the
customer requirements
Generally
Customer requirements are given as specification on product characteristics
Example
Specification on Heat Treatment Process:
Hardness should be within 55 ± 5 HRC
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Customer Requirement:
Variation allowed by the customer Or
Variation acceptable to customer
Example:
Specification: 55 ± 5 HRC
Meaning:
As long as Hardness of the heat treated jobs are between 50 HRC to 60
HRC, Customer is satisfied
Customer requirements are also expressed as
Lower Specification Limit (LSL) = 50 HRC
Upper Specification Limit (USL) = 60 HRC
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 55

Process Potential Index (Pp or Cp):
A process have the potential to meet customer requirement, if
Total variation in process < Allowed variation
Example:
Allowed variation = 50 HRC to 60 HRC
Total Variation = 52 HRC to 58 HRC
Total Variation < Allowed variation
Hence
Process have the potential to satisfy customer
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 56

Example:
Allowed variation = 50 HRC to 60 HRC
Total Variation = 48 HRC to 62 HRC
Total Variation > Allowed Variation
Then
Process doesn’t have the potential to satisfy customer
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 57

Process Potential Index Pp:
If the data is normally distributed, then

Total variation : Mean ± 3 SD
Example:
Mean = 55 HRC & SD = 1HRC
Total Variation = 55 – 3 x 1 to 55 + 3 x 1
= 52 HRC to 58 HRC
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 58

Process Potential Index Pp: Definition
Ratio of allowed variation to Total variation

Pp = Allowed variation / total variation
= (USL – LSL) / ((Mean + 3 SD) – (Mean - 3 SD))
= (USL – LSL) / 6 SD
A Process has the potential to meet customer requirements if

total variation < allowed variation
6 SD < (USL – LSL)
Pp > 1
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 59

Process Potential Index Pp: Example
20 data on acid content (mm) is given in the table below. If the specification on
acid content is 0.70 ± 0.2 mm. Check whether the process has the potential to
meet the customer requirement ?
0.85 0.75 0.80 0.65 0.75 0.60 0.80 0.70 0.75 0.60
0.80 0.75 0.70 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.85 0.60 0.50 0.65
Specification = 0.70 ± 0.2 mm

USL = 0.90 mm
LSL = 0.50 mm
Mean = 0.715
SD = 0.092
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Process Potential Index Pp: Example
Pp = (USL – LSL) / 6 SD
= (0.90 – 0.50) / (6 x 0.092)
= 0.4 / 0.552 = 0.72
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Process Potential Index (Pp or Cp): Issues
• Pp or Cp checks only whether the process has the potential to meet the
requirements
•Pp or Cp never checks whether the Process is actually meeting requirements
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 62

Process Performance Index (Ppk or Cpk): Definition
Ppk = Min [Ppl, Ppu]

Ppl = (Mean – LSL) / 3 SD
Ppu = (USL - Mean) / 3 SD
Ppk checks whether the process is centered at the middle of the specification
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Process Performance Index Ppk: Graphical Representation
LSL USL
Ppl = a / c = (Mean – LSL ) / 3 SD

Ppu = b / d = (USL - Mean ) / 3 SD
a b
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 SD Mean + 3 SD
c d
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6 12
Example:
USL : 12 LSL: 6
2 4
Mean : 8 SD : 1
1.2
Ppu = 4 / 3 = 1.33
1
Ppl = 2 / 3 = 0.66
0.8
Ppk = Min [1.33,0.66] = 0.66
0.6
Ppk < 1, performance is not OK
0.4
0.2
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
- 3 SD Mean + 3 SD
3 3
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6 12
Example:
USL : 12 LSL: 6
3 3 Mean : 9 SD : 1
1.2
1
Ppu = 3 / 3 = 1
0.8
Ppl = 3 / 3 = 1
0.6 Ppk = Min [1 , 1] = 1
0.4 Ppk = 1
0.2
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
- 3 SD Mean + 3 SD
3 3
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6 12
Conclusion:
Ppu = 3 / 3 = 1
Ppl = 3 / 3 = 1
3 3 Ppk = Min [1 , 1] = 1
1.2
1 Pp = (USL – LSL) / 6 SD = 6 /6 = 1
0.8 When Mean is at middle of

Specification [(USL + LSL) / 2] then
0.6
Ppu = Ppl = Ppk = Pp
0.4
Otherwise
0.2
Ppk < Pp
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 When Ppk < Pp
- 3 SD Mean + 3 SD Performance is not optimum
3 3
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 67

Preliminary Process Capability Study

• Is a Short term Study performed during New Product Development.
• Indices are represented as Pp & Ppk.
• Standard deviation calculated using first principle formulae - Sigma(n-1).
• Acceptance value for Pp / Ppk is Min 1.66
Ongoing Process Capability Study

• Is a Long term Study performed to monitor the ongoing Production.
• Indices are represented as Cp & Cpk.
• Standard deviation calculated using sigma = Rbar/d2
• Acceptance value for Cp / Cpk is Min 1.33
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CONTROL CHARTS
• A tool for process control and improvement

• A statistical tool to know that process is stable or in control
• A statistical tool to detect the presence of Assignable Causes in the process.
PROPERLY USED CONTROL CHARTS CAN :
• Be used by operators for ongoing control of a process
• Help the process perform consistently and predictably
• Allow the process to achieve – Higher Quality, Lower unit cost, Higher
effective capability
• Provide common language for discussing the performance of the process
• Distinguish special from common causes of variation, as a guide to local
action or action on the system
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Theory of Control Charts
For Normally distributed Data

If the process is stable then
Variation will be between Mean ± 3 x SD
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Control Charts
A Graphical Tool with three horizontal lines

1. Lower Control Limit (LCL)
2. Center Line (CL)
3. Upper Control Limit (UCL)
Control Chart
UCL
CL
LCL
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Control Charts
UCL & LCL are such that

if the value lies between UCL & LCL then the process is stable or in
control
Control Chart
UCL
CL
LCL
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Control Charts
For Normal Data

UCL =Mean + 3 x SD
CL = Mean
LCL = Mean – 3 x SD
Control Chart
UCL
CL
LCL
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Control Charts: Working
1. Calculate the Control Limits from past data

2. Plot the values in the chart
3. If the values are within the limits, the process is stable. Otherwise not.
Control Chart
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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Types of Control Charts
Continuous Data
• Xbar & R Chart ( or Median – R Chart)
• Individual X & Moving range Chart
• Xbar & S Chart ( or Median – S Chart)
Discrete Data
Control Chart for Defectives
• p chart
• np chart
Control Chart for Defects
• c chart
• u chart
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Selection Procedure for Control Charts
Determine
Characteristics to be Is interest in
Is interest in N
charted monitoring
monitoring %
nonconformiti
bad parts
es
N
Are the
Y Y
data
variable
N
Is the sample Is the sample
Y size constant size constant
N
Use np Chart Y Y
Is it Use p Chart
homogeneou Use C Chart
s in nature
N
Can sub group N
Y avg. easily Use Median Chart Use U Chart
calculated
Use X-MR Chart
Is “s”, Y Is the N
calculated subgroup size Use Xbar-R Chart
Y easily 9 or more
N
Use Xbar-S Chart Use Xbar-R Chart
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Xbar – R Chart: Methodology
• Conduct initial study :-

• Decide on the Total Number of Samples N . (N >19)
• Decide on Sub Group Size n. (n > 3)
• Decide on Frequency of Sampling. ( eg: Once in a hour, Once in 2 hours,
Once in every 50 items, etc.)
• Collect Data & Calculate Control Limits
• Plot Control Chart
• Calculate Process Capability Indices (Pp/Ppk).
• If Capable, Set Control Limits for Ongoing study.
• Monitor Process through plotting control chart.
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Xbar – R Chart: Example
Process: Turning Characteristic: Inner diameter (4.90 – 5.10)
Sample Size N: 9 Sub Group Size n: 4
Frequency of Sampling: Once in a Hour
Step 1: Collect Data
Sample No. Hour x1 x2 x3 x4

1 8:00 5.00 5.01 4.98 5.00
2 9:00 5.01 4.98 5.00 5.00
3 10:00 5.02 5.01 5.00 5.00
4 11:00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
5 12:00 4.98 4.98 5.01 4.99
6 13:00 5.02 4.99 5.00 4.98
7 14:00 4.99 4.99 4.98 4.98
8 15:00 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.00
9 16:00 4.98 5.00 5.01 4.98
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 78

Step 2: Calculate Sub Group Mean & Range
Sample No. Hour x1 x2 x3 x4 Mean Range

1 8:00 5.00 5.01 4.98 5.00 4.998 0.03
2 9:00 5.01 4.98 5.00 5.00 4.998 0.03
3 10:00 5.02 5.01 5.00 5.00 5.008 0.02
4 11:00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 0.00
5 12:00 4.98 4.98 5.01 4.99 4.990 0.03
6 13:00 5.02 4.99 5.00 4.98 4.998 0.04
7 14:00 4.99 4.99 4.98 4.98 4.985 0.01
8 15:00 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.00 5.008 0.02
9 16:00 4.98 5.00 5.01 4.98 4.993 0.03
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 79

Step 3: Calculate Control Limits for R Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Rbar = Sum of all Range Values / Total Number
of Values
= 0.21 / 9 = 0.0233
Upper Control Limit

UCL = Mean + 3 SD = D4 Rbar, For n = 4, D4 = 2.282
= 2.282 x 0.0233 = 0.053
Lower Control Limit

LCL = Mean - 3 SD = D3 Rbar, For n = 4, D3 = 0
= 0 x 0.0233 = 0.0
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 80
Step 4: Plot R values in R chart as shown below:
R Chart
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Step 5: If any value is beyond Control Limits, Do Homogenization

Homogenization:
Remove the out of control value
Recalculate the limits
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 81
Step 6: Calculate Control Limits for Xbar Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Xdoublebar = Sum of all Means / Total Number
of Values
= 44.975 / 9 = 4.997
Upper Control Limit

UCL = Mean + 3 SD = xdoublebar + A2Rbar, For n = 4, A2 = 0.729
= 4.997 + 0.729 x 0.0233 = 5.014
Lower Control Limit
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = xdoublebar - A2Rbar, For n = 4, A2 = 0.729
= 4.997 - 0.729 x 0.0233 = 4.98

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 82
Step 7: Plot mean values in xbar chart as shown below:
xbar Chart
5.02
5
4.98
4.96
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Step 9: If all values are within limit, Calculate Standard deviation
.
 = Rbar/d2 , Where d2 is constant
= 0.023/2.059
= 0.0111
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 83
Step 10: Calculate Process Capability Indices

Cp = Tol / 6 = 0.2 / 6 * 0.0111 = 3.03
Cpk = Min { (Xbar – LSL)/3  , (USL-Xbar)/3  }
Cpk = Min { 2.91 , 3.09 } = 2.91.
Process is Capable.
Step 11: If Capable, Set the Control limits for ongoing monitoring.
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 84

Control Chart Constants
n d2 A2 D3 D4 E2
2 1.128 1.880 0 3.268 2.66
3 1.693 1.023 0 2.574 1.77
4 2.059 0.729 0 2.282 1.46
5 2.326 0.577 0 2.114 1.29
6 2.534 0.483 0 2.004 1.18
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 85

Xbar – R Chart: Exercise
The following are the data on Time (in Minutes) to Process Transactions in a
BPO company. Construct an Xbar – R chart to monitor the process
Sample x1 x2 x3 Sample x1 x2 x3
Number Number
1 6.0 5.8 6.1 11 6.2 6.9 5.0
2 5.2 6.4 6.9 12 6.7 7.1 6.2
3 5.5 5.8 5.2 13 6.1 6.9 7.4
4 5.0 5.7 6.5 14 6.2 5.2 6.8
5 6.7 6.5 5.5 15 4.9 6.6 6.6
6 5.8 5.2 5.0 16 7.0 6.4 6.1
7 5.6 5.1 5.2 17 5.4 6.5 6.7
8 6.0 5.8 6.0 18 6.6 7.0 6.8
9 5.5 4.9 5.7 19 4.7 6.2 7.1
10 4.3 6.4 6.3 20 6.7 5.4 6.7
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 86

Individual X & Moving Range Chart: Example
• For Short Run Process / Bulk Material Processing. Can be used when the
testing method is a destructive type.
• Not possible to collect data in Sub Groups
Process: Heat Treatment Characteristic: Case Depth
Sample Number Data
1 2.5
2 2.3
3 2.8
4 2.6
5 2.4
6 2.9
7 2.1
8 2.5
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 87

Step 2: Calculate Moving Range
Sample Number Date MR

1 2.5
2 2.3 0.2
3 2.8 0.5
4 2.6 0.2
5 2.4 0.2
6 2.9 0.5
7 2.1 0.8
8 2.5 0.4
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 88

Step 3: Calculate Control Limits for M R Chart

Center Line
CL = Mean = MRbar = Sum of all MR Values / Total Number
of Values
= 2.8 / 7 = 0.4
Upper Control Limit

UCL = Mean + 3 SD = D4 MRbar, For n = 2, D4 = 3.276
= 3.276 x 0.4 = 1.31
Lower Control Limit

LCL = Mean - 3 SD = D3 MRbar, For n = 2, D3 = 0
= 0 x 0.4 = 0.0
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 89
Step 4: Plot MR values in MR chart as shown below:
MR Chart
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 90

Step 6: Calculate Control Limits for Individual X Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Xbar = Sum of all Data / Total Number
of Values
= 20.1 / 8 = 2.512
Upper Control Limit

UCL = Mean + 3 SD = xbar + A2MRbar, For n = 1, A2 = 2.66
= 2.512 + 2.66 x 0.4 = 3.58
Lower Control Limit

LCL = Mean - 3 SD = xbar - A2MRbar, For n = 1, A2 = 2.66
= = 2.512 - 2.66 x 0.4 = 1.45
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 91
Step 7: Plot individual values in Individual X chart as shown below:
Individual X Chart
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 92

Individual X & Moving Range Chart: Exercise
The data given below are surface Finish values of 30 jobs after chromium
plating. Construct an Individual X & Moving Range chart to monitor the
process?
0.078 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.074 0.072 0.069 0.075 0.078 0.077
0.075 0.078 0.08 0.081 0.08 0.079 0.082 0.073 0.078 0.074
0.072 0.075 0.068 0.073 0.074 0.081 0.076 0.08 0.074 0.07
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 93

Control Charts for Defectives: np Chart
Used when sample size is constant
Used to measure no of nonconforming items in an inspection.
Example: Inspection results of video of the month shipment to customers for 10
consecutive days are given in table. The number of inspection each day
is constant and is equal to 1000. Construct np chart to control the
defectives?
Sample Number Number of Defectives
1 47
2 42
3 48
4 58
5 32
6 38
7 53
8 68
9 45
10 37
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 94

np Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
pbar = Sum of Defectives / total Number Inspected
= 468 /(1000*10) = 0.0468
Mean = npbar = 1000 x 0.0468 = 46.8

SD = npbar(1-pbar) = (1000 x (0.0468 x (1-0.0468))) = 6.67
CL = npbar = 1000 x 0.0468 = 46.8

UCL = Mean + 3 SD = 46.8 + 3 x 6.68 = 66.84
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = 46.8 - 3 x 6.68 = 26.76
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 95
np chart: Example
Plot the number of defectives in np chart as shown below:
np Chart
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
If any value is beyond Control Limits, Do Homogenization
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 96

np Chart: Exercise
The following are the data on defectives in payment of dental insurance

claims. Control the dental insurance payment process with np chart.
Sample Size is 300
Sample Number of Sample Number of Defectives
Number Defectives Number
1 3 11 6
2 6 12 9
3 4 13 5
4 6 14 6
5 20 15 7
6 2 16 4
7 6 17 5
8 7 18 7
9 3 19 5
10 0 20 0
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 97

Control Charts for Defectives: p Chart
Used when sample size is not constant
Example: The daily inspection results for electric carving knives are given
below. Construct a control chart to monitor the process ?
Sample Number Number Inspected Number of Defectives
1 500 5
2 550 6
3 700 8
4 625 9
5 700 7
6 550 8
7 450 10
8 600 6
9 475 9
10 650 6
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 98

p Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
pbar = Sum of Defectives / Total Number Inspected
= 74 / 5800 = 0.0128
Mean = pbar = 0.0128

SD = pbar(1-pbar) / ni
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 99

p Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
Sample Number Number of p LCL UCL

Number Inspected Defectives
1 500 5 0.010 0 0.028
2 550 6 0.011 0 0.027
3 700 8 0.011 0 0.026
4 625 9 0.014 0 0.026
5 700 7 0.010 0 0.026
6 550 8 0.015 0 0.027
7 450 10 0.022 0 0.029
8 600 6 0.010 0 0.027
9 475 9 0.019 0 0.028
10 650 6 0.009 0 0.026
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 100

p chart: Example
Plot the proportion of defectives in p chart as shown below:
p Chart
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 101

p Chart: Exercise
Daily inspection results for the model 305 electric range assembly line are
given in the table. Construct a control chart to monitor the process?
Sample Number Number of Sample Number Number of
Number Inspected Defectives Number Inspected Defectives
1 171 31 11 181 38
2 167 6 12 115 33
3 170 8 13 165 26
4 135 13 14 189 15
5 137 26 15 165 16
6 170 30 16 170 35
7 45 3 17 175 12
8 155 11 18 167 6
9 195 30 19 141 50
10 180 36 20 159 26
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 102

Control Charts for Defects: c Chart
Used when sample size is constant

Example: A leading bank has compiled the data in the table showing the
count of nonconformities for 100 accounting transactions per
day. Construct a control chart to monitor the process?
Day Number of nonconformities
1 8
2 19
3 14
4 18
5 11
6 16
7 8
8 15
9 21
10 8
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 103

c Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
cbar = Sum of nonconformities / Total Number Inspected
= 138 /100 = 13.8
Mean = cbar = 13.8

SD = cbar = 13.8 = 3.71
CL = cbar = 13.8
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = 13.8 + 3 x 3.71 = 24.93
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = 13.8 - 3 x 3.71 = 2.67
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 104
c chart: Example
Plot the number of nonconformities in c chart as shown below:
c Chart
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 105

c Chart: Exercise
100 product labels are inspected every day for surface nonconformities.
The data for the past 20 days is given below. Construct a suitable control
chart to monitor the nonconformities
Day Number of Day Number of Nonconformities
Nonconformities
1 22 11 15
2 29 12 10
3 25 13 33
4 17 14 23
5 20 15 27
6 16 16 15
7 34 17 17
8 11 18 17
9 31 19 19
10 29 20 22
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 106

Control Charts for Defects: u Chart
Used when sample size is not constant
Example: The inspection results for the surface finish of rolls of white
paper for 10 lots is given below. Construct a control chart to
monitor the process ?
Lot Number Number Inspected Number of Defects
1 10 45
2 10 51
3 10 36
4 9 48
5 10 42
6 10 5
7 10 33
8 8 27
9 8 31
10 8 22
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 107

u Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean – 3 SD
ubar = Sum of Defects / Total Number Inspected
= 340 / 93 = 3.66
Mean =ubar = 3.66

SD = (ubar / ni)
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 108

u Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
Lot Number Number of u LCL UCL

Number Inspected Defects
1 10 45 4.5 2.80 5.47
2 10 51 5.1 2.86 5.47
3 10 36 3.6 2.70 5.47
4 9 48 5.3 2.83 5.57
5 10 42 4.2 2.77 5.47
6 10 5 0.5 1.09 5.47
7 10 33 3.3 2.66 5.47
8 8 27 3.4 2.56 5.69
9 8 31 3.9 2.63 5.69
10 8 22 2.8 2.44 5.69
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 109

u chart: Example
Plot the defects / unit (u) of in u chart as shown below:
u Chart
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 110

u Chart: Exercise
Construct a suitable control chart for the data in the table for empty bottle
inspections of a soft – drink manufacturer?
Sample Number of Number of Sample Number of Number of Defects

Number bottles Defects Number bottles
inspected Inspected
1 40 45 11 52 55
2 40 40 12 52 74
3 40 33 13 52 43
4 40 43 14 52 61
5 40 62 15 40 43
6 52 79 16 40 32
7 52 60 17 40 45
8 52 50 18 40 33
9 52 73 19 40 50
10 52 54 20 52 28
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 111

SPC Implementation:- Select the
characteristics &
Process for SPC
Perform MSA Study
Plan for Data

Collection
Collect Data & Plot

Control Chart Find
Assignable
Cause & Fix it
Is Process N
Stable
Is Process
Improve the Process
Capable N
Y
Ongoing Process
Establish Control Limits Prepare Reaction Plan
Control
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 112

Operator Role in SPC:-
Collect Data
Plot on the Control

Chart
Is Process in Y
Control (I.e no
special cause)
Refer Reaction Plan
Take Corrective Action
Take Disposition
action, if required
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 113

REACTION PLAN

Process:- Doc No.:-

Parameter:- Rev. No./Date:-
Chart Condition Possible Corrective Disposition Action
Causes Action
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 114

Common Mistakes in SPC Implementation
• SPC Chart plotting is just a show put up to customers and outsiders. No real
analysis is done.
• Companies do Fill SPC Charts, even though 100% inspection is being done.
• “Hi we are implementing SPC charts – Hence we are going to reduce

Rejection”. Just by plotting charts, rejection level doesn’t reduce.
• Charts are plotted at the end of the shift & analyzed.
• Inspection frequency & the SPC chart plotting frequency is different.
• Management involvement – is very less. It is just to meet the customer /

certification requirement.
• Charts & Capability indices show positive sign. But rejections/reworks are
increasing????
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 115
Common Mistakes in SPC Implementation
• Reaction plans are not prepared. Even if available, not referred / used.
• Corrective actions are not initiated even if the process is not stable / not
capable.
• Process Capability results are not considered as feedback for new product
development.
• Poor awareness at Operator level on usage of SPC charts & Its interpretation
So would you like to avoid above mistakes????
&
Get Maximum benefit of SPC???
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 116

Any Questions
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 117

Thank You
Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 118

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Zero Defect Consultants

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 1

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Input Process Output

Measure & give

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 5

Tools for Process Control:-

Detection :- A strategy that attempts to identify unacceptable output

Prevention :- A future oriented strategy by analysis and action toward

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 6

Need for Process Control

Detection :- Tolerates Waste

Prevention :- Avoids Waste

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 7

100% Inspection : In this technique 100% checking of all the parameters of

Statistical Process Control : In this Statistical technique such as Control

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 8

It is a value calculated from or based upon sample data (e.g. a subgroup

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 Physically measuring the characteristic using an

Hardness, Strength, Weight, Diameter, etc.

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 Classifying the items into different groups based on some criteria

Sex, Shade Variation, Surface Defects, Go-No GO, etc.

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 13

Statistical Properties of Data

 Observations collected needs to be analyzed using various properties.

Two types of properties

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Suppose x1, x2, - - - xn be the data, then

Example Hardness Data

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 16

Case 1: Total number of data is odd

Case 2: Total number of data is even

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 17

Median: Example Productivity Data

Total Number of data: 20 (even)

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 18

Highest no. of times an observation has occurred (Highest frequency)

Range: Maximum value – Minimum Value

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 21

Standard Deviation: Definition

Square root of the average squared deviation from mean

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 22

Standard Deviation: Example:

Rev No:03, Date: 18.12.2006 23

Standard Deviation: Example:

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Standard Deviation: Example:

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Standard Deviation: Example:

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Time to reach office : 9:30 am

9:31 9:33 9:28 9:29 9:25

9:34 9:26 9:27 9:34 9:31

This small variation is difficult to explain.