Chapter 11 Frequency Response

 11.1 Fundamental Concepts

 11.2 High-Frequency Models of Transistors
 11.3 Analysis Procedure
 11.4 Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages
 11.5 Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages
 11.6 Frequency Response of Followers
 11.7 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage
 11.8 Frequency Response of Differential Pairs
 11.9 Additional Examples

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 1
 Chapter Outline

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 2
 High Frequency Roll-off of Amplifier

 As frequency of operation increases, the gain of amplifier decreases.

This chapter analyzes this problem.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 3
 Example: Human Voice I

Natural Voice Telephone System

 Natural human voice spans a frequency range from 20Hz to 20KHz, however
conventional telephone system passes frequencies from 400Hz to 3.5KHz.
Therefore phone conversation differs from face-to-face conversation.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 4
 Example: Human Voice II

Path traveled by the human voice to the voice recorder

Mouth Air Recorder

Path traveled by the human voice to the human ear

Mouth Air Ear

Skull

 Since the paths are different, the results will also be

different.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 5
 Example: Video Signal

High Bandwidth Low Bandwidth

 Video signals without sufficient bandwidth become fuzzy as

they fail to abruptly change the contrast of pictures from
complete white into complete black.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 6
 Gain Roll-off: Simple Low-pass Filter

 In this simple example, as frequency increases the impedance of C 1 decreases

and the voltage divider consists of C 1 and R1 attenuates Vin to a greater extent at
the output.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 7
 Gain Roll-off: Common Source

� 1 �
Vout = - g mVin �RD || �
� C s
L �

 The capacitive load, CL, is the culprit for gain roll-off since at high
frequency, it will “steal” away some signal current and shunt it to ground.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 8
 Frequency Response of the CS Stage

Vout g m RD
=
Vin RD2 C L2 2  1

 At low frequency, the capacitor is effectively open and the gain is flat. As
frequency increases, the capacitor tends to a short and the gain starts to
decrease. A special frequency is ω=1/(RDCL), where the gain drops by 3dB.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 9
 Example: Figure of Merit

1
F .O.M . =
VT VCC C L

 This metric quantifies a circuit’s gain, bandwidth, and

power dissipation. In the bipolar case, low temperature,
supply, and load capacitance mark a superior figure of
merit.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 10
 Example: Relationship between Frequency
Response and Step Response

1 � -t �
H ( s = j ) = Vout ( t ) = V0 �
1 - exp u( t)
�
R12C12 2  1 � R1C1 �

 The relationship is such that as R1C1 increases, the

bandwidth drops and the step response becomes slower.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 11
 Bode Plot

 s  s 
1  1   
  z1   z 2 
H ( s ) = A0
 s  s 
1  1  
    
 p1  p2 

 When we hit a zero, ωzj, the Bode magnitude rises with a slope of +20dB/dec.
 When we hit a pole, ωpj, the Bode magnitude falls with a slope of -20dB/dec

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 12
 Example: Bode Plot

1
 p1 =
RD C L

 The circuit only has one pole (no zero) at 1/(R DCL), so the
slope drops from 0 to -20dB/dec as we pass ωp1.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 13
 Pole Identification Example I

1 1
 p1 =  p2 =
RS Cin RD C L

Vout g m RD
=
Vin (1   2
 p21 )(1   2  p2 2 )
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 14
 Pole Identification Example II

1
 p1 = 1
 1   p2 =
 RS || Cin RD C L
 gm 
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 15
 Circuit with Floating Capacitor

 The pole of a circuit is computed by finding the effective resistance and

capacitance from a node to GROUND.
 The circuit above creates a problem since neither terminal of C F is grounded.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 16
 Miller’s Theorem

ZF ZF
Z1 = Z2 =
1 - Av 1 - 1 / Av
 If Av is the gain from node 1 to 2, then a floating impedance
ZF can be converted to two grounded impedances Z1 and Z2.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 17
 Miller Multiplication

 With Miller’s theorem, we can separate the floating capacitor. However,

the input capacitor is larger than the original floating capacitor. We call
this Miller multiplication.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 18
 Example: Miller Theorem

1
1  out =
in =  1 
RS ( 1  g m R D ) C F RD 1  C F
 g m RD 

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 19
 High-Pass Filter Response

Vout R1C1
=
Vin R12C1212  1

 The voltage division between a resistor and a capacitor can

be configured such that the gain at low frequency is
reduced.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 20
 Example: Audio Amplifier

Ci = 79.6nF C L = 39.8nF
Ri = 100 K
g m = 1 / 200
 In order to successfully pass audio band frequencies (20
Hz-20 KHz), large input and output capacitances are
needed.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 21
 Capacitive Coupling vs. Direct Coupling

Capacitive Coupling Direct Coupling

 Capacitive coupling, also known as AC coupling, passes AC signals from Y to X

while blocking DC contents.
 This technique allows independent bias conditions between stages. Direct coupling
does not.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 22
 Typical Frequency Response

Lower Corner Upper Corner

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 23
 High-Frequency Bipolar Model

Cp = Cb  C je

 At high frequency, capacitive effects come into play. C b

represents the base charge, whereas C and Cje are the
junction capacitances.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 24
 High-Frequency Model of Integrated Bipolar
Transistor

 Since an integrated bipolar circuit is fabricated on top of a substrate, another

junction capacitance exists between the collector and substrate, namely C CS.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 25
 Example: Capacitance Identification

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 26
 MOS Intrinsic Capacitances

 For a MOS, there exist oxide capacitance from gate to channel, junction
capacitances from source/drain to substrate, and overlap capacitance
from gate to source/drain.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 27
 Gate Oxide Capacitance Partition and Full Model

 The gate oxide capacitance is often partitioned between

source and drain. In saturation, C2 ~ Cgate, and C1 ~ 0. They
are in parallel with the overlap capacitance to form CGS and
CGD.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 28
 Example: Capacitance Identification

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 29
 Transit Frequency

gm gm
2pf T = 2pf T =
CGS Cp

 Transit frequency, fT, is defined as the frequency where the

current gain from input to output drops to 1.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 30
 Example: Transit Frequency Calculation

3 n
2pf T = 2
(VGS - VTH )
2L

L = 65nm
VGS - VTH = 100mV
 n = 400cm 2 /(V .s )
fT = 226GHz
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 31
 Analysis Summary

 The frequency response refers to the magnitude of the

transfer function.
 Bode’s approximation simplifies the plotting of the
frequency response if poles and zeros are known.
 In general, it is possible to associate a pole with each node
in the signal path.
 Miller’s theorem helps to decompose floating capacitors
into grounded elements.
 Bipolar and MOS devices exhibit various capacitances that
limit the speed of circuits.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 32
 High Frequency Circuit Analysis Procedure

 Determine which capacitor impact the low-frequency region

of the response and calculate the low-frequency pole
(neglect transistor capacitance).
 Calculate the midband gain by replacing the capacitors
with short circuits (neglect transistor capacitance).
 Include transistor capacitances.
 Merge capacitors connected to AC grounds and omit those
that play no role in the circuit.
 Determine the high-frequency poles and zeros.
 Plot the frequency response using Bode’s rules or exact
analysis.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 33
 Frequency Response of CS Stage
with Bypassed Degeneration

Vout - g m RD ( RS Cb s  1)
( s) =
VX RS Cb s  g m RS  1

 In order to increase the midband gain, a capacitor Cb is

placed in parallel with Rs.
 The pole frequency must be well below the lowest signal
frequency to avoid the effect of degeneration.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 34
 Unified Model for CE and CS Stages

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 35
 Unified Model Using Miller’s Theorem

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 36
 Example: CE Stage

RS = 200
I C = 1mA
 = 100
Cp = 100 fF
C = 20 fF
CCS = 30 fF

 p ,in = 2p  ( 516MHz )
 p ,out = 2p  (1.59GHz )

 The input pole is the bottleneck for speed.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 37
 Example: Half Width CS Stage

W  2X

1
 p ,in =
C  g R C 
RS  in  1  m L  XY 
 2  2  2 
1
 p ,out =
 Cout  2  C XY 
RL   1   
 2  g R
m L  2 
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 38
 Direct Analysis of CE and CS Stages

gm
|  z |=
C XY
1
|  p1 |=
(1  g m RL ) C XY RThev  RThev Cin  RL ( C XY  Cout )
(1  g m RL ) C XY RThev  RThev Cin  RL ( C XY  Cout )
|  p 2 |=
RThev RL ( Cin C XY  Cout C XY  Cin Cout )

 Direct analysis yields different pole locations and an extra zero.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 39
 Example: CE and CS Direct Analysis

1
 p1 
1  g m1 ( rO1 || rO 2 ) C XY RS  RS Cin  ( rO1 || rO 2 ) (C XY  Cout )
1  g m1 ( rO1 || rO 2 ) C XY RS  RS Cin  ( rO1 || rO 2 ) (C XY  Cout )
 p2 
RS ( rO1 || rO 2 )( Cin C XY Cout C XY  Cin Cout )
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 40
 Example: Comparison Between Different Methods

RS = 200
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF
g m = (150 )
-1

 =0
RL = 2 K

Miller’s Exact Dominant Pole

 p ,in = 2p  ( 571MHz )  p ,in = 2p  ( 264MHz )  p ,in = 2p  ( 249 MHz )

 p ,out = 2p  ( 428MHz )  p ,out = 2p  ( 4.53GHz )  p ,out = 2p  ( 4.79GHz )
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 41
CH 11 Frequency Response 41
 Input Impedance of CE and CS Stages

1 1
Z in  || rp Z in 
Cp  (1  g m RC ) C s  CGS  (1  g m RD ) CGD  s
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 42
 Low Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages

Vout g m RC Ci s
( s) =
Vin (1  g m RS ) Ci s  g m
 As with CE and CS stages, the use of capacitive coupling
leads to low-frequency roll-off in CB and CG stages
(although a CB stage is shown above, a CG stage is
similar).
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 43
 Frequency Response of CB Stage

1
 p, X =
 1 
 RS || C X
 gm 
C X = Cp

1
 p ,Y =
RL CY
rO = 
CY = C   CCS

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 44
 Frequency Response of CG Stage

1
 p , Xr = = 
O  1 
 RS || C X
 gm 
C X = CGS  C SB

1
 p ,Y =
R L CY
rO = 
CY = CGD  C DB

 Similar to a CB stage, the input pole is on the order of f T, so

rarely a speed bottleneck.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 45
 Example: CG Stage Pole Identification

1 1
 p, X =  p ,Y =
 1  1
 RS || ( C SB1  CGD1 ) ( C DB1  CGD1  CGS 2  C DB 2 )
g m1  g m2

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 46
 Example: Frequency Response of CG Stage

RS = 200
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF
g m = (150 )
-1
 p , X = 2p  ( 5.31GHz )
 =0
 p ,Y = 2p  ( 442MHz )
Rd = 2 K
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 47
CH 11 Frequency Response 47
 Emitter and Source Followers

 The following will discuss the frequency response of emitter and source followers
using direct analysis.
 Emitter follower is treated first and source follower is derived easily by allowing r p to
go to infinity.

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 48
 Direct Analysis of Emitter Follower

RS
Cp a= ( C  Cp  C C L  Cp C L )
1 s gm
Vout gm
= 2 Cp  RS  CL
Vin as  bs  1 b = RS C    1  
gm  rp  gm
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 49
 Direct Analysis of Source Follower Stage

CGS RS
1 s a= ( CGD CGS  CGD C SB  CGS C SB )
gm
Vout gm
= 2 CGD  C SB
Vin as  bs  1 b = RS CGD 
gm
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 50
Example: Frequency Response of Source Follower

RS = 200
C L = 100 fF
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF  p1 = 2p  - 1.79GHz  j ( 2.57GHz ) 
g m = (150 )
-1

 p 2 = 2p  - 1.79GHz - j ( 2.57GHz ) 
 =0
CH
CH 10 Differential Response
11 Frequency Amplifiers 51
51
 Example: Source Follower

CGS
1 s
Vout gm
= 2
Vin as  bs  1

RS
a=  CGD1CGS 1  (CGD1  CGS 1 )(C SB1  CGD 2  C DB 2 )
g m1
CGD1  C SB1 C GD 2 C DB 2
b = RS CGD1 
g m1
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 52
 Input Capacitance of Emitter/Source Follower

rO = 

Cp / CGS
Cin = C  / CGD 
1  g m RL
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 53
 Example: Source Follower Input Capacitance

1
Cin = CGD1  CGS1
1  g m1 ( rO1 || rO 2 )
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 54
 Output Impedance of Emitter Follower

V X RS rp Cp s  rp  RS
=
IX rp Cp s    1
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 55
 Output Impedance of Source Follower

V X RS CGS s  1
=
I X CGS s  g m
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 56
 Active Inductor

 The plot above shows the output impedance of emitter and

source followers. Since a follower’s primary duty is to lower
the driving impedance (RS>1/gm), the “active inductor”
characteristic on the right is usually observed.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 57
 Example: Output Impedance

rO = 

V X ( rO1 || rO 2 ) CGS 3 s  1
=
IX CGS 3 s  g m3
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 58
 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage

- g m1
Av , XY =  -1 C x  2C XY
g m2
 For cascode stages, there are three poles and Miller
multiplication is smaller than in the CE/CS stage.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 59
 Poles of Bipolar Cascode

1 1
 p, X =  p ,Y =
( RS || rp 1 ) ( Cp 1  2C 1 ) 1
( CCS1  Cp 2  2C 1 )
g m2

1
 p ,out =
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers RL ( CCS 2  C  2 ) 60
 Poles of MOS Cascode

1
 p, X = 1
  g m1    p , out =
RS CGS1  1  CGD1  RL ( C DB 2  CGD 2 )
  g m2  

1
 p ,Y =
1   g m2  
C DB1  CGS 2  1  CGD1 
g m2   g m1  
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 61
 Example: Frequency Response of Cascode

RS = 200
CGS = 250 fF
CGD = 80 fF
C DB = 100 fF
 p , X = 2p  (1.95GHz )
g m = (150 )
-1

 =0  p ,Y = 2p  (1.73GHz )
RL = 2 K  p ,out = 2p  ( 442MHz )
CH
CH 10 Differential Response
11 Frequency Amplifiers 62
62
 MOS Cascode Example

1
 p, X = 1
  g m1    p , out =
RS CGS1  1  CGD1  RL ( C DB 2  CGD 2 )
  g m2  

1
 p ,Y =
1   g m2  
C DB1  CGS 2  1  CGD1  CGD 3  C DB 3 
CH 11
g m2 
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers
 g m1  
63
 I/O Impedance of Bipolar Cascode

1 1
Z in = rp 1 || Z out = RL ||
( Cp 1  2C 1 ) s ( C  2  CCS 2 ) s
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 64
 I/O Impedance of MOS Cascode

1 1
Z in = Z out = RL ||
  g m1   ( CGD 2  C DB 2 ) s
CGS 1  1  g CGD1  s
  m2  
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 65
 Bipolar Differential Pair Frequency Response

Half Circuit

 Since bipolar differential pair can be analyzed using half-

circuit, its transfer function, I/O impedances, locations of
poles/zeros are the same as that of the half circuit’s.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 66
 MOS Differential Pair Frequency Response

Half Circuit

 Since MOS differential pair can be analyzed using half-

circuit, its transfer function, I/O impedances, locations of
poles/zeros are the same as that of the half circuit’s.
CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 67
 Example: MOS Differential Pair

1
 p, X =
RS [CGS 1  (1  g m1 / g m 3 )CGD1 ]
1
 p ,Y =
1   g m3  
C DB1  CGS 3  1  g CGD1 
g m3   m1  
1
 p ,out =
RL ( C DB 3  CGD 3 )

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 68
 Common Mode Frequency Response

Vout g R ( R C  1)
= m D SS SS
VCM RSS CSS s  2 g m RSS  1

 Css will lower the total impedance between point P to

ground at high frequency, leading to higher CM gain which
degrades the CM rejection ratio.
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 69
CH 11 Frequency Response 69
 Tail Node Capacitance Contribution

 Source-Body Capacitance of
M1, M2 and M3
 Gate-Drain Capacitance of M3

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 70
 Example: Capacitive Coupling

Rin 2 = RB 2 ||  rp 2  (   1) RE 

1 1
 L1 = = 2p  ( 542 Hz ) L 2 = = p  ( 22.9 Hz )
( rp 1 || RB1 ) C1 ( RC  Rin 2 ) C2
CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 71
CH 11 Frequency Response 71
 Example: IC Amplifier – Low Frequency Design

RF
Rin 2 =
1 - Av 2

g m1 RS 1  1
 L1 = = 2p  ( 42.4 MHz )
RS 1C1

1
L 2 = = 2p  ( 6.92MHz )
( RD1  Rin 2 ) C2

CH 11
10 Frequency
Differential Response
Amplifiers 72
 Example: IC Amplifier – Midband Design

vX
= - g m1 ( RD1 || Rin 2 ) = -3.77
vin

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 73
CH 11 Frequency Response 73
 Example: IC Amplifier – High Frequency Design

 p1 = 2p  (308 MHz )
 p 2 = 2p  (2.15 GHz )
1
 p3 =
RL 2 (1.15CGD 2  C DB 2 )
= 2p  (1.21 GHz )

CH 10 Differential Amplifiers 74
CH 11 Frequency Response 74
 Chapter 12 Feedback

 12.1 General Considerations

 12.2 Types of Amplifiers

 12.3 Sense and Return Techniques

 12.4 Polarity of Feedback

 12.5 Feedback Topologies

 12.6 Effect of Finite I/O Impedances

 12.7 Stability in Feedback Systems

75
 Negative Feedback System

 A negative feedback system consists of four components: 1)

feedforward system, 2) sense mechanism, 3) feedback
network, and 4) comparison mechanism.
CH 12 Feedback 76
 Close-loop Transfer Function

Y A1
=
X 1  KA1
CH 12 Feedback 77
 Feedback Example

Y A1
=
X R2
1 A1
R1  R2

 A1 is the feedforward network, R1 and R2 provide the

sensing and feedback capabilities, and comparison is
provided by differential input of A1.
CH 12 Feedback 78
 Comparison Error

X
E=
1 A1 K

 As A1K increases, the error between the input and fed back
signal decreases. Or the fed back signal approaches a
good replica of the input.
CH 12 Feedback 79
 Comparison Error

Y R1
 1
X R2

CH 12 Feedback 80
 Loop Gain

VN
X =0
KA1 = -
Vtest

 When the input is grounded, and the loop is broken at an

arbitrary location, the loop gain is measured to be KA1.
CH 12 Feedback 81
 Example: Alternative Loop Gain Measurement

VN = - KA1Vtest
CH 12 Feedback 82
 Incorrect Calculation of Loop Gain

 Signal naturally flows from the input to the output of a

feedforward/feedback system. If we apply the input the
other way around, the “output” signal we get is not a result
of the loop gain, but due to poor isolation.
CH 12 Feedback 83
 Gain Desensitization

Y 1
A1 K  1 
X K
 A large loop gain is needed to create a precise gain, one
that does not depend on A1, which can vary by ±20%.

CH 12 Feedback 84
 Ratio of Resistors

 When two resistors are composed of the same unit resistor,

their ratio is very accurate. Since when they vary, they will
vary together and maintain a constant ratio.
CH 12 Feedback 85
 Merits of Negative Feedback

 1) Bandwidth
enhancement

 2) Modification of I/O
Impedances

 3) Linearization

CH 12 Feedback 86
 Bandwidth Enhancement

Closed Loop
Open Loop
Negative A0
A0
A( s ) = Feedback
Y 1  KA0
1
s ( s) =
X s
0 1
(1  KA0 )0

 Although negative feedback lowers the gain by (1+KA 0), it

also extends the bandwidth by the same amount.

CH 12 Feedback 87
 Bandwidth Extension Example

 As the loop gain increases, we can see the decrease of the

overall gain and the extension of the bandwidth.

CH 12 Feedback 88
 Example: Open Loop Parameters

A0  g m RD
1
Rin =
gm
Rout = RD
CH 12 Feedback 89
 Example: Closed Loop Voltage Gain

vout g m RD
=
vin R2
1 g m RD
R1  R2
CH 12 Feedback 90
 Example: Closed Loop I/O Impedance

RD
1  R2  Rout =
Rin = 1  g m RD  R2
g m  R1  R2  1 g m RD
R1  R2
CH 12 Feedback 91
 Example: Load Desensitization

W/O Feedback With Feedback

Large Difference g m RDSmall Difference g m RD

g m RD  g m RD / 3 
R2 R2
1 g m RD 3 g m RD
R1  R2 R1  R2
CH 12 Feedback 92
 Linearization

Before feedback

After feedback

CH 12 Feedback 93
 Four Types of Amplifiers

CH 12 Feedback 94
 Ideal Models of the Four Amplifier Types

CH 12 Feedback 95
 Realistic Models of the Four Amplifier Types

CH 12 Feedback 96
 Examples of the Four Amplifier Types

CH 12 Feedback 97
 Sensing a Voltage

 In order to sense a voltage across two terminals, a

voltmeter with ideally infinite impedance is used.

CH 12 Feedback 98
 Sensing and Returning a Voltage

Feedback

Network

R1  R2  
 Similarly, for a feedback network to correctly sense the
output voltage, its input impedance needs to be large.
 R1 and R2 also provide a mean to return the voltage.
CH 12 Feedback 99
 Sensing a Current

 A current is measured by inserting a current meter with

ideally zero impedance in series with the conduction path.
 The current meter is composed of a small resistance r in
parallel with a voltmeter.

CH 12 Feedback 100
 Sensing and Returning a Current

Feedback

Network

RS  0
 Similarly for a feedback network to correctly sense the
current, its input impedance has to be small.
 RS has to be small so that its voltage drop will not change
Iout.
CH 12 Feedback 101
 Addition of Two Voltage Sources

Feedback

Network

 In order to add or substrate two voltage sources, we place

them in series. So the feedback network is placed in series
with the input source.

CH 12 Feedback 102
 Practical Circuits to Subtract Two Voltage Sources

 Although not directly in series, V in and VF are being

subtracted since the resultant currents, differential and
single-ended, are proportional to the difference of V in and VF.

CH 12 Feedback 103
 Addition of Two Current Sources

Feedback

Network

 In order to add two current sources, we place them in

parallel. So the feedback network is placed in parallel with
the input signal.
CH 12 Feedback 104
 Practical Circuits to Subtract Two Current Sources

 Since M1 and RF are in parallel with the input current source,

their respective currents are being subtracted. Note, R F has
to be large enough to approximate a current source.

CH 12 Feedback 105
 Example: Sense and Return

 R1 and R2 sense and return the output voltage to

feedforward network consisting of M1- M4.
 M1 and M2 also act as a voltage subtractor.
CH 12 Feedback 106
 Example: Feedback Factor

iF
K= = g mF
CH 12 Feedback
vout 107
 Input Impedance of an Ideal Feedback Network

 To sense a voltage, the input impedance of an ideal

feedback network must be infinite.
 To sense a current, the input impedance of an ideal
feedback network must be zero.

CH 12 Feedback 108
 Output Impedance of an Ideal Feedback Network

 To return a voltage, the output impedance of an ideal

feedback network must be zero.
 To return a current, the output impedance of an ideal
feedback network must be infinite.

CH 12 Feedback 109
 Determining the Polarity of Feedback

 1) Assume the input goes

either up or down.

 2) Follow the signal through

the loop.

 3) Determine whether the

returned quantity enhances or
opposes the original change.

CH 12 Feedback 110
 Polarity of Feedback Example I

Vin  I D1 , I D 2  Vout ,Vx  I D 2 , I D1 

CH 12 Feedback Negative Feedback 111
 Polarity of Feedback Example II

Vin  I D1 , V A  Vout , Vx  I D1 ,V A 

CH 12 Feedback Negative Feedback 112
 Polarity of Feedback Example III

I in  I D1 , V X  Vout , I D 2  I D1 , V X 

CH 12 Feedback Positive Feedback 113

 Voltage-Voltage Feedback

Vout A0
=
Vin 1  KA0
CH 12 Feedback 114
 Example: Voltage-Voltage Feedback

Vout g mN ( rON || rOP )

=
Vin R2
1 g mN ( rON || rOP )
R1  R2
CH 12 Feedback 115
 Input Impedance of a V-V Feedback

Vin
= Rin (1  A 0 K )
I in

 A better voltage sensor

CH 12 Feedback 116
 Example: V-V Feedback Input Impedance

Vin 1  R2 
= 1  g m RD 
I in g m  R1  R2 
CH 12 Feedback 117
 Output Impedance of a V-V Feedback

VX Rout
=
I X (1  KA0 )
 A better voltage source
CH 12 Feedback 118
 Example: V-V Feedback Output Impedance

 R1  1
Rout , closed  1  
 R2  g mN
CH 12 Feedback 119
 Voltage-Current Feedback

V out RO
=
I in 1  KRO
CH 12 Feedback 120
 Example: Voltage-Current Feedback

Vout - g m 2 RD1 RD 2
=
I in g m 2 RD1 RD 2
1
RF
CH 12 Feedback 121
 Input Impedance of a V-C Feedback

VX Rin
=
IX 1  R0 K

 A better current sensor.

CH 12 Feedback 122
 Example: V-C Feedback Input Impedance

1 1
Rin ,closed = .
g m1 g m 2 RD1 RD 2
1
RF
CH 12 Feedback 123
 Output Impedance of a V-C Feedback

VX Rout
=
IX 1 R0 K

 A better voltage source.

CH 12 Feedback 124
 Example: V-C Feedback Output Impedance

RD 2
Rout , closed =
g m 2 RD1 RD 2
1
RF
CH 12 Feedback 125
 Current-Voltage Feedback

I out Gm
=
Vin 1  KGm
CH 12 Feedback 126
 Example: Current-Voltage Feedback

Laser

I out g m1 g m3 ( rO 3 || rO 5 )
|closed =
Vin 1  g m1 g m3 ( rO 3 || rO 5 ) RM
CH 12 Feedback 127
 Input Impedance of a C-V Feedback

V in
= Rin (1  KGm )
I in

 A better voltage sensor.

CH 12 Feedback 128
 Output Impedance of a C-V Feedback

VX
= Rout (1  KGm )
IX

 A better current source.

CH 12 Feedback 129
 Example: Current-Voltage Feedback

I out g m1 g m 2 RD
|closed =
Vin 1  g m1 g m 2 RD RM
1
Laser Rin |closed = (1  g m1 g m 2 RD RM )
g m1
1
Rout |closed = (1  g m1 g m 2 RD RM )
g m2

CH 12 Feedback 130
Wrong Technique for Measuring Output Impedance

 If we want to measure the output impedance of a C-V closed-

loop feedback topology directly, we have to place V X in series
with K and Rout. Otherwise, the feedback will be disturbed.

CH 12 Feedback 131
 Current-Current Feedback

I out AI
=
CH 12 Feedback
I in 1  KAI 132
 Input Impedance of C-C Feedback

VX Rin
=
I X 1  KAI
 A better current sensor.

CH 12 Feedback 133
 Output Impedance of C-C Feedback

VX
= Rout (1  KAI )
IX
 A better current source.

CH 12 Feedback 134
 Example: Test of Negative Feedback

Laser

I in  VD1 , I out  VP , I F  VD1 , I out 

CH 12 Feedback Negative Feedback 135
 Example: C-C Negative Feedback

Laser

- g m 2 RD
AI |closed =
1  g m 2 R D ( RM / R F )
1 1
Rin |closed = .
g m1 1  g m 2 RD ( RM / RF )
Rout |closed = rO 2 [1  g m 2 RD ( R M / RF )]
CH 12 Feedback 136
 How to Break a Loop

 The correct way of breaking a loop is such that the loop

does not know it has been broken. Therefore, we need to
present the feedback network to both the input and the
output of the feedforward amplifier.

CH 12 Feedback 137
 Rules for Breaking the Loop of Amplifier Types

CH 12 Feedback 138
 Intuitive Understanding of these Rules

Voltage-Voltage Feedback

 Since ideally, the input of the feedback network sees zero

impedance (Zout of an ideal voltage source), the return
replicate needs to be grounded. Similarly, the output of the
feedback network sees an infinite impedance (Z in of an ideal
voltage sensor), the sense replicate needs to be open.
 Similar ideas apply to the other types.
CH 12 Feedback 139
 Rules for Calculating Feedback Factor

CH 12 Feedback 140
 Intuitive Understanding of these Rules

Voltage-Voltage Feedback

 Since the feedback senses voltage, the input of the

feedback is a voltage source. Moreover, since the return
quantity is also voltage, the output of the feedback is left
open (a short means the output is always zero).
 Similar ideas apply to the other types.
CH 12 Feedback 141
 Breaking the Loop Example I

Av ,open = g m1  RD || ( R1  R2 ) 
Rin ,open = 1 / g m1
Rout ,open = RD || ( R1  R2 )
CH 12 Feedback 142
 Feedback Factor Example I

K = R2 /( R1  R2 )
Av , closed = Av , open /(1  KAv , open )
Rin , closed = Rin , open (1  KAv , open )
Rout , closed = Rout , closed /(1  KAv , open )
CH 12 Feedback 143
 Breaking the Loop Example II

Av ,open = g mN  rON || rOP || ( R1  R2 ) 

Rin ,open = 
Rout ,open = rON || rOP || ( R1  R2 )
CH 12 Feedback 144
 Feedback Factor Example II

K = R2 /( R1  R2 )
Av ,closed = Av ,open /(1  KAv , open )
Rin , closed = 
Rout , closed = Rout ,open /(1  KAv , open )
CH 12 Feedback 145
 Breaking the Loop Example IV

Vout RF RD1
|open = . - g m 2 ( RD 2 || RF ) 
I in 1
RF 
g m1
1
Rin , open = || RF
g m1
Rout , open = RD 2 || RF
CH 12 Feedback 146
 Feedback Factor Example IV

K = -1 / RF
Vout Vout Vout
|closed = |open /(1  K |open )
I in I in I in
Vout
Rin , closed = Rin , open /(1  K |open )
I in
Vout
Rout , closed = Rout , open /(1  K |open )
CH 12 Feedback I in 147
 Breaking the Loop Example V

I out g m 3 ( rO 3 || rO 5 ) g m1rO1
|open =
Vin rO1  RL  RM
Rin ,open = 
Rout ,open = rO1  RM
CH 12 Feedback 148
 Feedback Factor Example V

K = RM
( I out / Vin |closed ) = ( I out / Vin |open ) /[1  K ( I out / Vin ) |open ]
Rin , closed = 
Rout , closed = Rout , open [1  K ( I out / Vin ) |open ]
CH 12 Feedback 149
 Breaking the Loop Example VI

I out g m1 RD
|open =
Vin R L  RM  1 / g m 2
Rin,open = 1 / g m1
CH 12 Feedback
Rout , open = (1 / g m 2 )  RM 150
 Feedback Factor Example VI

K = RM
( I out / Vin |closed ) = ( I out / Vin |open ) /[1  K ( I out / Vin ) |open ]
Rin , closed = Rin , open [1  K ( I out / Vin ) |open ]
Rout , closed = Rout ,open [1  K ( I out / Vin ) |open ]
CH 12 Feedback 151
 Breaking the Loop Example VII

( R F  RM ) R D - g m 2 rO 2
AI , open = .
1 rO 2  RL  RM || RF
R F  RM 
g m1
1
Rin ,open = || ( RF  RM )
g m1
Rout , open = rO 2  RF || RM
CH 12 Feedback 152
 Feedback Factor Example VII

K = - RM /( RF  RM )
AI ,closed = AI ,open /(1  KAI ,open )
Rin ,closed = Rin ,open /(1  KAI ,open )

CH 12 Feedback
Rout ,closed = Rout ,open (1  KAI ,open ) 153
 Breaking the Loop Example VIII

Vout RF RD
|open = [ - g m 2 ( RF || RM )]
I in RF  1 / g m1
1
Rin , open = || RF
g m1
Rout , open = RF || RM
CH 12 Feedback 154
 Feedback Factor Example VIII

K = -1 / RF
(Vout / I in ) |closed = (Vout / I in ) |open /[1  K (Vout / I in ) |open ]
Rin ,closed = Rin ,open /[1  K (Vout / I in ) |open ]
Rout ,closed = Rout ,open /[1  K (Vout / I in ) |open ]
CH 12 Feedback 155
 Example: Phase Response

 As it can be seen, the phase of H(jω) starts to drop at 1/10

of the pole, hits -45o at the pole, and approaches -90o at 10
times the pole.
CH 12 Feedback 156
 Example: Three-Pole System

 For a three-pole system, a finite frequency produces a

phase of -180o, which means an input signal that operates
at this frequency will have its output inverted.
CH 12 Feedback 157
 Instability of a Negative Feedback Loop

Y H (s)
(s) =
X 1  KH ( s )
 Substitute jω for s. If for a certain ω1, KH(jω1) reaches
-1, the closed loop gain becomes infinite. This implies for a
very small input signal at ω1, the output can be very large.
Thus the system becomes unstable.
CH 12 Feedback 158
 “Barkhausen’s Criteria” for Oscillation

| KH ( j1 ) |= 1
KH ( j1 ) = -180

CH 12 Feedback 159
 Time Evolution of Instability

CH 12 Feedback 160
 Oscillation Example

 This system oscillates, since there’s a finite frequency at

which the phase is -180o and the gain is greater than unity. In
fact, this system exceeds the minimum oscillation
requirement.
CH 12 Feedback 161
 Condition for Oscillation

 Although for both systems above, the frequencies at which |

KH|=1 and KH=-180o are different, the system on the left is
still unstable because at KH=-180o, |KH|>1. Whereas the
system on the right is stable because at KH=-180o, |KH|<1.

CH 12 Feedback 162
 Condition for Stability

GX   PX
 ωPX, (“phase crossover”), is the frequency at which
KH=-180o.
 ωGX, (“gain crossover”), is the frequency at which |KH|=1.
CH 12 Feedback 163
 Stability Example I

| H p | 1
K =1

CH 12 Feedback 164
 Stability Example II

0.5 | H p | 1
K = 0.5

CH 12 Feedback 165
 Marginally Stable vs. Stable

Marginally Stable Stable

CH 12 Feedback 166
 Phase Margin

 Phase Margin = H(ωGX)

+180

 The larger the phase

margin, the more stable
the negative feedback
becomes

CH 12 Feedback 167
 Phase Margin Example

PM = 45 

CH 12 Feedback 168
 Frequency Compensation

 Phase margin can be improved by moving ωGX closer to

origin while maintaining ωPX unchanged.
CH 12 Feedback 169
 Frequency Compensation Example

 Ccomp is added to lower the dominant pole so that ωGX

occurs at a lower frequency than before, which means
phase margin increases.
CH 12 Feedback 170
 Frequency Compensation Procedure

 1) We identify a PM, then -180o+PM gives us the new ωGX, or ωPM.

 2) On the magnitude plot at ωPM, we extrapolate up with a slope
of +20dB/dec until we hit the low frequency gain then we look
“down” and the frequency we see is our new dominant pole,
ωP’.

CH 12 Feedback 171
 Example: 45o Phase Margin Compensation

 PM =  p 2
CH 12 Feedback 172
 Miller Compensation

Ceq = [1  g m5 (rO 5 || rO 6 )]Cc

 To save chip area, Miller multiplication of a smaller
capacitance creates an equivalent effect.

CH 12 Feedback 173