The Heisenberg

Uncertainty Principle

Inderjit Singh
Heisenberg realized that ...
 In the world of very small particles, one
cannot measure any property of a particle
without interacting with it in some way

 This introduces an unavoidable uncertainty

into the result

 One can never measure all the

properties exactly
Measuring Position and Momentum
of an Electron
 Shine light on electron and detect
reflected light using a microscope BEFORE
ELECTRON-PHOTON
COLLISION

 Minimum uncertainty in position

is given by the wavelength of the light
 So to determine the

Position accurately, it is incident

photon
necessary to use light with electron

a short wavelength
Measuring Position and Momentum
of an Electron
 By Planck’s law E = hc/λ, a photon with
a short wavelength has a large energy
AFTER
 Thus, it would impart a large ELECTRON-PHOTON
COLLISION

‘kick’ to the electron

 But to determine its momentum
accurately, electron must only be given
a small kick
scattered
 This means using light of photon

long wavelength ! recoiling

electron
 Implications
 It is impossible to know both the position
and momentum exactly, i.e., Δx=0 and Δp=0

 These uncertainties are inherent in the

physical world and have nothing to do with
the skill of the observer

 Because h is so small, these uncertainties

are not observable in normal everyday
situations
Example of Baseball

 A pitcher throws a 0.1-kg baseball at 40 m/s

 So momentum is 0.1 x 40 = 4 kg m/s

 Suppose the momentum is measured to an

accuracy of 1 percent , i.e.,

Δp = 0.01 p = 4 x 10-2 kg m/s

Example of Baseball (cont’d)
 The uncertainty in position is then

 No wonder one does not observe

the effects of the uncertainty
principle in everyday life!
Example of Electron
 Same situation, but baseball replaced
by an electron which has mass 9.11 x
10-31 kg traveling at 40 m/s

 So momentum = 3.6 x 10-29 kg m/s

and its uncertainty = 3.6 x 10-31 kg m/s

 The uncertainty in position is then

Classical World
 The observer is objective and passive

 Physical events happen independently of

whether there is an observer or not

 This is known as objective reality

 Role of an Observer in Quantum
Mechanics
 The observer is not objective and passive

 The act of observation changes the physical

system irrevocably

 This is known as subjective reality

The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
 Whenever a measurement is made there is
always some uncertainty
 Quantum mechanics limits the accuracy of
certain measurements because of wave –
particle duality and the resulting interaction
between the target and the detecting
instrument
4. The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

• In the example of a free particle, we see that if its momentum is

completely specified, then its position is completely unspecified

• When the momentum p is completely specified we write:

p  0 (because: p  p1  p2  0)
and when the position x is completely unspecified we write:

x  
• In general, we always have: x  p  a constant
This constant is known as:
h
(called h-bar) 
2

h is the Planck’s constant

(h  6.625 1034 J .s)

 So we can write: x  p  
That is the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

“ it is impossible to know simultaneously and with exactness

both the position and the momentum of the fundamental particles”

N.B.: • We also have for the particle moving in three dimensions

x  px   y  p y   z  pz  
• With the definition of the constant :
p  h /   hK / 2 p  K
Energy Uncertainty
The energy uncertainty of a Gaussian wave packet is

combined with the angular frequency relation

 Energy-Time Uncertainty Principle: .

 Derivation of Uncertainty
Principle
. 1  A cost  kx
  1  2
2  A cos   t  k  k x 

  2 A cos 2   t  2k  k x cos  t  k x 

1 1
2 2
with   , k

  k 
  2 A cos  t x  cost  kx      (1)
 2 2 
 Derivation - Continued
Equation1 represent a wave of angular ve locity w and
w wave number k which has superimpos ed upon it a wave
(the process is called modulation ) of angular ve locity
d/2 and wave number dk/2

phase velocity = wave velocity of carrier :v p 
k

group velocity = wave velocity of envelope :vg 
k
d
for more than two wave contiribut ions : v g 
dk
 Derivation - Continued
The condition for the formation of the node is
that amplitude 2 A cos(.t  k.x)
should be zero or

cos( .t  k .x)  0

 Derivation - Continued
If x1 and x2 be the position of two consecutive
nodes, then

So that

and
 Derivation - Continued
So uncertainity in measurement of position of
the particle (x1-x2)
Physical Origin of the Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg (Bohr) Microscope
 The measurement itself
introduces the uncertainty
 When we “look” at an object we
see it via the photons that are
detected by the microscope
 These are the photons that are
scattered within an angle 2θ and
collected by a lens of diameter D
 Momentum of electron is changed
 Consider single photon, this will
introduce the minimum
uncertainty
Bohr Microscope-continued
(a)Limitation in determing the position of electron

=half angle subtended by the objective at the object i.e.

electron
(b)Limitation in determining the momentum of the electron

If photon is scattered along OQ,Then

If photon is scattered along OP,Then
.
Diffraction of Electron by a slit
Electron Diffraction -Continued
Electron Diffraction -Continued
 Applications of Heisenberg
uncertainty Principle-Non existence of
electron in the nucleus
Size of Nucleus =10-14 m
If electron is present in the nucleus uncertainty
in the position of electron is =10-14 m
The minimum momentum of the electron must be
at least equal to uncertainty in momentum
Zero point Energy or minimum
energy of a particle in the box
The minimum energy of a system at 0K is called
zero point energy.

Let a particle of mass m0 is moving in a one

dimensional box of length L

So uncertainty of the position of the particle in the

box Δx=L

Uncertainty in the momentum Δp h/Δx = h/L

 Minimum energy of a particle
in the box
Minimum momentum of the particle is at least equal
to uncertainty in momentum
p=Δp=ℏ/L

K.E. of the particle is =p2 /2m0 =(Δp)2 /2m0

K.E.=ℏ/ 2m0 L2

This is the energy of the particle. Because the energy of

the system is minimum at 0K .
Minimum energy of a particle
in the box
Since the Δp  0 at 0K, So the particle will
have some energy even at 0K.
This minimum energy is called end point
energy.
So a particle confined to a region of space
cannot have zero energy.
Binding energy of an electron

Electron-revolving around the nucleous in an

orbit of radius r
So uncrtainity in the position of the electron is
equal to the radius of the atom
Δx=r
Uncertainty in the momentum
Δp h/Δx = h/r
Binding energy of an electron

Minimum momentum of the particle is at

least equal to uncertainty in momentum
p=Δp=ℏ/r
K.E. of the particle is =p2 /2m0

=(Δp)2 /2m0

K.E.=ℏ/ 2m0 r2
Binding energy of an electron

The potetial energy of the electron in the field of

the nucleus of atomic no Z is
Binding energy of an electron

.
Binding energy of an electron

.
Binding energy of an electron

.
Minimum Energy of the
Hermonic Oscillator
Consider a mechanical oscillator –spring
attached at one end and mass attached at
the other end.
Classical mechanics-when at rest-energy of the
oscillator is zero
Quantum mechanics—Energy of the oscillator
can never be zero.
Let Δx is the displacement of the mass.
Uncertainity in position= Δx
Harmonic Oscillator-Continued
Uncertainty in the momentum Δp h/Δx
Minimum momentum of the particle is at
least equal to uncertainty in momentum
p=Δp=ℏ/ Δx
Energy of the Hermonic oscillator= PE+KE
Harmonic Oscillator-Continued
.
Harmonic Oscillator-Continued
.
Harmonic Oscillator-Continued
.
Harmonic Oscillator-Continued
THANKS
Heisenberg (Bohr) Microscope
p ph
max
 2 p ph sin

As a consequence of
momentum conservation
pelectron  pph  2pph sin

h
p ph 

2h
p electron  2 p ph sin  sin

for small  , sin  
2h Trying to locate electron we
p electron  
 introduce the uncertainty of
the momentum
 Heisenberg (Bohr) Microscope
2h
pelectron 

xelelctron  D
 θ~(D/2)/L, L ~ D/2 θ is distance 
to lens 2  1.22
D
 Uncertainty in electron
1.22
position for small θ is xelectron 
2
xelectron  L(2 )  ( D / 2 )(2 )  D

 To reduce uncertainty in the

momentum, we can either
increase the wavelength or
reduce the angle
 But this leads to increased
uncertainty in the position,
since
Heisenberg (Bohr) Microscope

2h 
p electron  


1.22  h
   p electron  1.22
2D  x
x  D 

( p electron )( x)  1.22h
PROBLEM 3 An electron is moving along x axis with the speed
of 2×106 m/s (known with a precision of 0.50%).
What is the minimum uncertainty with which we can
simultaneously measure the position of the electron along the x
axis? Given the mass of an electron 9.1×10-31 kg

SOLUTION

From the uncertainty principle: x  p  

if we want to have the minimum uncertainty: x  p  
We evaluate the momentum: p  mv  (9.11031)  (2.05 106 )
p  9.35 1027 kg.m / s
The uncertainty of the momentum is:

p  0.5% p  0.5 / 100 1.87 1024  9.35 1027 kg.m / s

 6.635 1034 / 2 8
 x 
p
 
 1.13  10 m  11nm
9.35 10 27
PROBLEM 4 In an experiment, an electron is determined to be
within 0.1mm of a particular point. If we try to measure the
electron’s velocity, what will be the minimum uncertainty?

SOLUTION

p 
v  
m mx
6.63 1034 J .s
v 
9.11031 kg 1.0 104 m  2
v  1.2m / s
Observation:
We can predict the velocity of the electron to within 1.2m/s.
Locating the electron at one position affects our ability to know
where it will be at later times
PROBLEM 5 A grain of sand with the mass of 1.00 mg appears
to be at rest on a smooth surface. We locate its position to within
0.01mm. What velocity limit is implied by our measurement of its
position?

SOLUTION

p 
v  
m mx
6.63 1034 J .s
v 
1106 kg 1.0 105 m  2
v  1.11023 m / s
Observation:
The uncertainty of velocity of the grain is so small that we do not
observe it: The grain of sand may still be considered at rest, as our
experience says it should
PROBLEM 6 An electron is confined within a region of width
1.010- 10 m. (a) Estimate the minimum uncertainty in the
x-component of the electron's momentum.
(b) If the electron has momentum with magnitude equal to the
uncertainty found in part (a), what is its kinetic energy? Express
the result in jou1es and in electron volts.

SOLUTION
(a)

(b)
PROBLEM 7 A sodium atom is in one of the states labeled ''Lowest excited
levels". It remains in that state for an average
time of 1.610-8 s before it makes a transition back to a ground
state, emitting a photon with wavelength 589.0 nm and energy
2.105 eV. What is the uncertainty in energy of that excited state?
What is the wavelength spread of the corresponding spectrum line?

SOLUTION

The fractional uncertainty of the photon energy is

The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states
that it is impossible to know both the
momentum and the position of a particle at
the same time.
 This limitation is critical when dealing with
small particles such as electrons.
 But it does not matter for ordinary-sized
objects such as cars or airplanes.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
 To locate an electron, you might strike it with
a photon.
 The electron has such a small mass that
striking it with a photon affects its motion in a
way that cannot be predicted accurately.
 The very act of measuring the position of the
electron changes its momentum, making its
momentum uncertain.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
Before collision: A photon
strikes an electron during an
attempt to observe the
electron’s position.

 After collision: The impact

changes the electron’s
momentum, making it
uncertain.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
 If we want accuracy in position, we must use
short wavelength photons because the best
resolution we can get is about the wavelength
of the radiation used.
 Short wavelength radiation implies high
frequency, high energy photons.
 When these collide with the electrons, they
transfer more momentum to the target.
 If we use longer wavelength, i.e less
energetic photons, we compromise resolution
and position.