CH 8 Developmental Psychology

Chapter 8
development across the life span
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
Learning Objective Menu
8.2 What is the relationship between heredity and environmental factors in
determining development?
8.3 How do chromosomes, genes, and DNA determine a person’s characteristics or
disorders?
8.4 What happens during conception and prenatal development and what are some
prenatal hazards?
8.5 What kind of physical changes take place in infancy and childhood?
8.6 What are two ways of looking at cognitive development, how does language
develop, and what is autism spectrum disorder?
8.7 How do infants and children develop personalities and form relationships with
others, and what are Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development for children?
8.8 What are the physical, cognitive, and personality changes that occur in
adolescence, including concepts of morality and Erikson’s search for identity?
8.9 What are the physical, cognitive, and personality changes that occur during
adulthood and aging, including Erikson’s last three psychosocial stages, and
patterns of parenting?
Psychology, Third Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Islamic Overview
• Life-span development in secular

psychology starts from pre-natal until death
• The concept of life-span development in
Islam is broader. It starts from the world of
spirit, the physical world, the world of
barzakh, and the world of akhirah
(hereafter).
• In Islamic developmental psychology, the
concept of soul is central in understanding
behaviour and mental processes
Al-Qur’an (71:13-14)
• “What is the matter with you? You do not

fear the greatness of Allah? Seeing that it
is He that has created you in
developmental stages?
Al-Qur’an (40:67)
• “He it is Who created you from dust (turab),

then from a sperm drop (nutfah), then from a
clot (`alaqah), then He brings you forth as a
child (tifla), then that you may attain your
maturity (ashuddakum), then that you may be
old (shuyukha) - and of you there are some
who are caused to die (yatawaffa) before--
and that you may reach an appointed term,
and that you may understand.”
Comparison with secular
developmental psychology
• Creation of Allah – not mentioned in psychology
• Dust – not mentioned in psychology
• Sperm Drop – conception
• `Alaqah - pre-natal development topics
• Tifla – Infancy, Early childhood, and middle
childhood
• Ashuddakum – adolescence, early adulthood,
middle adulthood
• Syuyukha – late adulthood
Nature versus Nurture
LO 8.2 The Relationship between Heredity and Environmental Factors
• Nature: the influence of our inherited

characteristics on our personality, physical
growth, intellectual growth, and social
interactions
• Nurture: the influence of the environment on
personality, physical growth, intellectual
growth, and social interactions
• Behavioral genetics: focuses on nature vs.
nurture
Genetics and Development
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, DNA, and Multiple Births
• Genetics: the science of inherited traits

– behavioral genetics
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): special
molecule that contains the genetic
material of the organism
Figure 8.1 DNA Molecule
In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are
composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines.
Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
• Gene: section of DNA having a certain

pattern of chemical elements
– dominant: referring to a gene that actively
controls the expression of a trait
– recessive: referring to a gene that only
influences the expression of a trait when
paired with an identical gene
Figure 8.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU
This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring.
(a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.
Figure 8.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU
This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring.
(b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4 possibility of having PKU.
• Conception: the moment at which a

female becomes pregnant
• Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg
• Fertilization: the union of the ovum and
sperm
• Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of
the ovum and sperm; divides into many
cells, eventually forming the baby
Conception and Twins
• Monozygotic twins: identical twins

– formed when one zygote splits into two
separate masses of cells, each of which
develops into a separate embryo
• Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins
– occur when two eggs get fertilized by two
different sperm, resulting in the development
of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
Figure 8.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come
from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.
Periods of Pregnancy
LO 8.4 Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Periods of Pregnancy
• Germinal period: first two weeks after

fertilization, during which the zygote
moves down to the uterus and begins to
implant in the lining
– embryo is the name for the developing
organism from two weeks to eight weeks after
fertilization
• Embryonic period: the period from two to

eight weeks after fertilization, during which
the major organs and structures of the
organism develop
– critical periods: times during which certain
environmental influences can have an impact
on the development of the infant
– teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth
defect
• Fetal period: the time from about eight

weeks after conception until the birth of
the child
– fetus: name for the developing organism from
eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the
baby
– viability: the point at which it is possible for an
infant to survive outside the womb, usually
about 22-26 weeks
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood
• Infants are born with reflexes that help

them survive
– grasping
– Moro (startle)
– rooting
– stepping
– sucking
Figure 8.4 Five Infant Reflexes
Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch
a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);
Figure 8.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes
(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous
system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem.
Figure 8.6 Six Motor Milestones
Shown here are (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support
—4 to 6 months,
Figure 8.6 (continued) Six Motor Milestones
(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor
milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of
the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of
control of the legs and feet.
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
LO 8.5 Physical Changes in Infancy and Childhood
• The senses, except for vision, are fairly

well developed at birth
• Brain development
– synaptic pruning: unused synaptic
connections and nerve cells are cleared away
to make way for functioning connections and
cells
Cognitive Development
LO 8.6 Looking at Cognitive Development and How Language Develops
• Cognitive development: the development

of thinking, problem solving, and memory
• Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage

theory of cognitive development based on
observation of infants and children
– schemes: mental concepts formed by children
as they experience new situations and events
Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of

cognitive development, in which the infant
uses its senses and motor abilities to
interact with objects in the environment
– object permanence: the knowledge that an
object exists even when it is not in sight
• Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second

stage of cognitive development, in which
the preschool child learns to use language
as a means of exploring the world
– egocentrism: the inability to see the world
through anyone else’s eyes
– centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a
young child to focus only on one feature of an
object while ignoring other relevant features
• Preoperational Stage (cont’d)

– conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to
understand that simply changing the
appearance of an object does not change the
object’s nature
– irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of
the young child to mentally reverse an action
Figure 8.7 Conservation Experiment
A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape.
When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve
tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more
water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top
line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually
more pennies in that line.
• Concrete operations stage: third stage of

cognitive development, in which the
school-aged child becomes capable of
logical thought processes but is not yet
capable of abstract thinking
• Formal operations: Piaget’s last stage of
cognitive development, in which the
adolescent becomes capable of abstract
thinking
Vygotsky’s Theory
• Scaffolding: process in which a more

skilled learner gives help to a less skilled
learner, then reduces the amount of help
as the less skilled learner becomes more
capable
Vygotsky’s Theory
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the

difference between what a child can do
alone and what that child can do with the
help of a teacher
– private speech: Vygotsky viewed this as a
way for a child to “think out loud” and advance
cognitively
Language Development
• Language development allows children to:

– think in words rather than images
– ask questions
– communicate their needs
– form concepts
• Child-directed speech: children attend to
higher-pitched, repetitious, sing-song
speech
Stages of Language Development
• Cooing
• Babbling
• One-Word Speech (Holophrases)
• Telegraphic Speech
• Whole sentences
Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD):

developmental disorder encompassing a
range of problems in thinking, feeling,
language, and social skills
– myths relating ASD and vaccines have been
debunked
Temperament
LO 8.7 Developing Personalities, Forming Relationships, and Erikson’s First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Temperament: behavioral characteristics

that are fairly well established at birth
– easy: regular, adaptable, and happy
– difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable
– slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to
change
Attachment
• Attachment: the emotional bond between

an infant and the primary caregiver
– secure: willing to explore; upset when mother
departs, but easily soothed upon her return
– avoidant: unattached; explores without
“touching base”
Attachment
• Attachment (cont’d)
– ambivalent: insecurely attached; upset when
mother leaves and then angry with mother
upon her return
– disorganized-disoriented: insecurely attached
and sometimes abused or neglected; child
seems fearful, dazed, and depressed
Attachment
• Harlow monkey experiment

– In this experiment The wire surrogate
“mother” provides the food for this infant
rhesus monkey. But the infant spends all its
time with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate.
According to Harlow, this demonstrates the
importance of contact comfort in attachment.
Self-Concept
• Self-concept is the image you have of

yourself
– based on your interactions with the important
people in your life.
Erikson’s First Four Stages
• Trust versus mistrust: first stage of

personality development
– the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust
develops as a result of consistent or
inconsistent care
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt:
second stage of personality development
– the toddler strives for physical independence
Erikson’s First Four Stages
• Initiative versus guilt: third stage of

– the preschool-aged child strives for emotional
and psychological independence and
attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world
• Industry versus inferiority: fourth stage of
– the adolescent strives for a sense of
competence and self-esteem
Puberty and Adolescence
LO 8.8 Changes of Adolescence, Concepts of Morality, and Erikson’s Search for Identity
• Adolescence: the period of life from about

age thirteen to the early twenties, during
which a young person is no longer
physically a child but is not yet an
independent, self-supporting adult
• Puberty: the physical changes that occur in
the body as sexual development reaches
its peak
– period of about four years
Egocentric Thinking
• Formal operations may begin to emerge

– Piaget’s final stage
– thinking of hypothetical situations
– egocentric thought remains
Egocentric Thinking
• Personal fable: young people believe

themselves to be unique and protected
from harm
• Imaginary audience: young people believe
that other people are just as concerned
about the adolescent’s thoughts and
characteristics as they themselves are
Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality
1. Preconventional morality: behavior is governed

by the consequences of the behavior
2. Conventional morality: behavior is governed by
conforming to society’s norms of behavior
3. Postconventional morality: behavior is governed
by moral principles that have been decided on by
the individual
– may be in disagreement with accepted social norms
Erikson’s Fifth Stage
• Identity versus role confusion: fifth stage

of personality development
– the adolescent must find a consistent sense
of self
• Parent–teen conflict
Physical Changes and Aging
LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
• Adulthood begins in the early twenties and

ends with old age and death
– divided into young adulthood, middle
adulthood, and late adulthood
– emerging adulthood, time from late
adolescence through the 20s
• Women experience a physical decline in the

reproductive system called the climacteric
– ends at about age fifty with menopause: the
cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and
the end of a woman’s reproductive capability
• Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual
hormones and reproductive system of males
• Increase in health problems

• Decrease in reaction time
• Challenges in memory most likely caused
by stress and high volumes of information
to maintain
Erikson’s Last Three Stages
LO 8.9 LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
• Intimacy versus isolation : an emotional

and psychological closeness that is based
on the ability to trust, share, and care,
while still maintaining a sense of self
LO 8.9 LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
• Generativity versus stagnation : providing

guidance to one’s children or the next
generation, or contributing to the well-
being of the next generation through
career or volunteering
– parenting styles
• Ego integrity versus despair : sense of

wholeness that comes from having lived a
full life and the ability to let go of regrets;
the final completion of the ego
END OF CHAPTER 8
Exercises
LO 8.3
Dizygotic twins are conceived when:
1. One egg splits into two separate zygotes.

2. Two eggs are fertilized by one sperm cell.
3. One egg is fertilized by two sperm cells.
4. Two eggs are fertilized by two sperm cells.
5. The cause is unknown.
62
LO 8.3
Dizygotic twins are conceived when:
1. One egg splits into two separate zygote.

2. Two eggs are fertilized by one sperm cell.
3. One egg is fertilized by two sperm cells.
4. Two eggs arefertilized by two sperm cells. (p. 312)
5. The cause is unknown.
63
LO 8.4
Which period of pregnancy is typically the time of most

growth, with the biggest gains in weight for the baby?
1. Fetal
2. Embryonic
3. Germinal
4. Critical period
5. Conception
64
LO 8.4
Which period of pregnancy is typically the time of most

growth, with the biggest gains in weight for the baby?
1. Fetal (p. 314)

2. Embryonic
3. Germinal
4. Critical period
5. Conception
65
LO 8.5
Newborn babies have a number of adaptive reflexes. If you

want to stimulate the "rooting reflex" you should:
1. Press into a newborn's palm.

2. Touch the newborn's lips.
3. Move your finger to the back of the baby's mouth.
4. Touch the newborn's right or left cheek.
66
LO 8.5
Newborn babies have a number of adaptive reflexes. If you

want to stimulate the "rooting reflex" you should:
1. Press into a newborn's palm.

2. Touch the newborn's lips.
3. Move your finger to the back of the baby's mouth.
4. Touch the newborn's right or left cheek. (p. 318)
67
LO 8.5
Infants are born into the world with a series of innate,

involuntary reflexes that help to aid their survival. The
_______ reflex is a response to a loud noise.
1. sucking
2. Babinski
3. grasping
4. Moro
5. rooting
68
LO 8.5
Infants are born into the world with a series of innate,

involuntary reflexes that help to aid their survival. The
_______ reflex is a response to a loud noise.
1. sucking
2. Babinski
3. grasping
4. Moro (p. 318)
5. rooting
69
LO 8.6
During which stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development does a child obtain the understanding of
object permanence?
1. Preoperational period
2. Sensorimotor period
3. Concrete operations
4. Formal operations
5. Post-formal operations
70
LO 8.6
During which stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development does a child obtain the understanding of
object permanence?
1. Preoperational period
2. Sensorimotor period (p. 322)
3. Concrete operations
4. Formal operations
5. Post-formal operations
71
LO 8.6
Each of the following are criticisms of Piaget’s model of

cognitive development EXCEPT:
1. Piaget underestimated how early children develop an

understanding of object permanence.
2. Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget believed.
3. Piaget underestimated the role of social interactions in
influencing the rate at which children develop cognitive
skills.
4. Development may be more continuous than Piaget
suggested.
5. Piaget did not believe that children’s cognitive
understanding was qualitatively different than that of
adults. 72
LO 8.6
Each of the following are criticisms of Piaget’s model of
cognitive development EXCEPT:
1. Piaget underestimated how early children develop an

understanding of object permanence.
2. Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget believed.
3. Piaget underestimated the role of social interactions in
influencing the rate at which children develop cognitive
skills.
4. Development may be more continuous than Piaget
suggested.
5. Piaget did not believe that children’s cognitive
understanding was qualitatively different than that
of adults. (p. 320)
73
LO 8.6
A child who is reading a book upstairs calls to his mother

who is downstairs, "Mommy, what's this a picture of?" This
illustrates that the child is:
1. Concrete operational.
2. Egocentric.
3. Babbling.
4. Experiencing separation anxiety.
74
LO 8.6
A child who is reading a book upstairs calls to his mother

who is downstairs, "Mommy, what’s this a picture of?" This
illustrates that the child is:
1. Concrete operational.
2. Egocentric. (p. 322)
3. Babbling.
4. Experiencing separation anxiety.
75
LO 8.6
In Piaget's theory, __________ is the process of fitting new

information into existing mental representations and
__________ is the process of modifying existing
representations to fit new information.
1. accommodation; assimilation
2. egocentrism; cognitive development
3. cognitive development; egocentrism
4. assimilation; accommodation
76
LO 8.6
In Piaget's theory, __________ is the process of fitting new

information into existing mental representations and
__________ is the process of modifying existing
representations to fit new information.
1. accommodation; assimilation
2. egocentrism; cognitive development
3. cognitive development; egocentrism
4. assimilation; accommodation (p. 321)
77
LO 8.6
According to Piaget, a child develops “object permanence”

when he or she understands that:
1. Things exist even when they disappear from view.

2. Eventually all living things will die.
3. Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
4. All things are either solids, liquids, or gasses.
78
LO 8.6
According to Piaget, a child develops “object permanence”

when he or she understands that
1. Things exist even when they disappear from view. (p.

321)
2. Eventually all living things will die.
3. Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
4. All things are either solids, liquids, or gasses.
79
LO 8.6
Children of all cultures experience the stages of language

development in which order?
1.Cooing, crying, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic
speech
2.Crying, cooing, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic
speech
3.Crying, cooing, one-word speech, babbling, telegraphic
speech
4.Crying, telegraphic speech, one-word speech, cooing,
babbling
5.Crying, cooing, telegraphic speech, one-word speech,
babbling
80
LO 8.6
Children of all cultures experience the stages of language

development in which order?
1.Cooing, crying, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic

speech
2.Crying, cooing, babbling, one-word speech,
telegraphic speech (p. 325)
3.Crying, cooing, one-word speech, babbling, telegraphic
speech
4.Crying, telegraphic speech, one-word speech, cooing,
babbling
5.Crying, cooing, telegraphic speech, one-word speech,
babbling
81
LO 8.7
The "strange-situation" test is used to measure:
1. A monkey's preference for substitute mothers.

2. A child's level of cognitive development.
3. Children's relationships with their peers.
4. The security of a child's attachment.
82
LO 8.7
The "strange-situation" test is used to measure:
1. A monkey's preference for substitute mothers.

2. A child's level of cognitive development.
3. Children's relationships with their peers.
4. The security of a child's attachment. (p. 329)
83
LO 8.7
A child who has ________________ is able to explore a

room of toys happily in the presence of his or her mother, is
temporarily distressed when a stranger enters the room
and the mother leaves, but is happy again when the mother
later returns.
1. an easy temperament
2. a slow-to-warm temperament
3. a secure attachment style
4. an ambivalent attachment style
5. a disorganized attachment style
84
LO 8.7
A child who has ________________ is able to explore a

room of toys happily in the presence of his or her mother, is
temporarily distressed when a stranger enters the room
and the mother leaves, but is happy again when the mother
later returns.
1. an easy temperament
2. a slow-to-warm temperament
3. a secure attachment style (p. 329)
4. an ambivalent attachment style
5. a disorganized attachment style
85
LO 8.7
Infant monkeys who were separated from their mothers at

birth:
1. preferred a wire “surrogate monkey” who held a bottle

with their food source.
2. preferred a cloth “surrogate monkey” that felt very
similar to the feel of their real-life mother.
3. spent little time around either of the “surrogate
monkeys.”
4. spent equal amounts of time around each of the
“surrogate monkeys.”
5. showed that the attainment of nourishment
superseded the need for “contact comfort.”
86
LO 8.7
Infant monkeys who were separated from their mothers at

birth:
1. preferred a wire “surrogate monkey” who held a bottle

with their food source.
2. preferred a cloth “surrogate monkey” that felt very
similar to the feel of their real-life mother. (p. 331)
3. spent little time around either of the “surrogate
monkeys.”
4. spent equal amounts of time around each of the
“surrogate monkeys.”
5. showed that the attainment of nourishment
superseded the need for “contact comfort.”
87
LO 8.7
During which stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial

development might it be most important for a child to have
opportunities for success (e.g., with school activities such
as reading and writing)?
1. Trust vs. mistrust

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3. Initiative vs. guilt
4. Industry vs. inferiority
5. Identity vs. role confusion
88
LO 8.7
During which stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial

development might it be most important for a child to have
opportunities for success (e.g., with school activities such
as reading and writing)?
1. Trust vs. mistrust

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
4. Industry vs. inferiority (p. 333)
5. Identity vs. role confusion
89
LO 8.8
A person who makes their moral judgments (i.e., of why an

action is either right or wrong) on the basis of society’s
rules is probably in which stage of Kohlberg’s theory
of moral development?
1. Pre-conventional
2. Conventional
3. Post-conventional
5. Either the conventional or post-conventional stage
90
LO 8.8
A person who makes their moral judgments (i.e., of why an

action is either right or wrong) on the basis of society’s
rules is probably in which stage of Kohlberg’s theory
of moral development?
1. Pre-conventional
2. Conventional (p. 337)
3. Post-conventional
5. Either the conventional or post-conventional stage
91
LO 8.9
In terms of physical development, all of the following occur

as a person ages EXCEPT:
1. Speed of information processing declines.

2. Physical strength begins to decline.
3. Height decreases.
4. Men go through a decline in testosterone, and may
experience reduced sperm count.
5. Disorders such as sleep apnea are less likely to occur
with aging.
92
LO 8.9
In terms of physical development, all of the following occur

as a person ages EXCEPT:
1. Speed of information processing declines.

2. Physical strength begins to decline.
3. Height decreases.
4. Men go through a decline in testosterone, and may
experience reduced sperm count.
5. Disorders such as sleep apnea are less likely to
occur with aging. (p. 339)
93

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Chapter 8

development across the life span

• Life-span development in secular

• “What is the matter with you? You do not

• “He it is Who created you from dust (turab),

• Nature: the influence of our inherited

• Genetics: the science of inherited traits

• Gene: section of DNA having a certain

• Conception: the moment at which a

• Monozygotic twins: identical twins

• Germinal period: first two weeks after

• Embryonic period: the period from two to

• Fetal period: the time from about eight

• Infants are born with reflexes that help

• The senses, except for vision, are fairly

• Cognitive development: the development

• Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage

• Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of

• Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second

• Preoperational Stage (cont’d)

• Concrete operations stage: third stage of

• Scaffolding: process in which a more

• Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the

• Language development allows children to:

• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD):

• Temperament: behavioral characteristics

• Attachment: the emotional bond between

• Harlow monkey experiment

• Self-concept is the image you have of

• Trust versus mistrust: first stage of

• Initiative versus guilt: third stage of

• Adolescence: the period of life from about

• Formal operations may begin to emerge

• Personal fable: young people believe

1. Preconventional morality: behavior is governed

• Identity versus role confusion: fifth stage

• Adulthood begins in the early twenties and

• Women experience a physical decline in the

• Increase in health problems

• Intimacy versus isolation : an emotional

• Generativity versus stagnation : providing

• Ego integrity versus despair : sense of

Dizygotic twins are conceived when:

1. One egg splits into two separate zygotes.

Dizygotic twins are conceived when:

1. One egg splits into two separate zygote.

Which period of pregnancy is typically the time of most

Which period of pregnancy is typically the time of most

1. Fetal (p. 314)

Newborn babies have a number of adaptive reflexes. If you

1. Press into a newborn's palm.

Newborn babies have a number of adaptive reflexes. If you

1. Press into a newborn's palm.

Infants are born into the world with a series of innate,

Infants are born into the world with a series of innate,

During which stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive

During which stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive

Each of the following are criticisms of Piaget’s model of

1. Piaget underestimated how early children develop an

1. Piaget underestimated how early children develop an

A child who is reading a book upstairs calls to his mother

A child who is reading a book upstairs calls to his mother

In Piaget's theory, __________ is the process of fitting new