Radar Theory and Principles Part 1 - Slides

Enterprises Electronics Corporation
Enterprise
RADAR Theory Electronics Corporation
and Principles
Radar Theory
RADAR
Radar: RAdio Detection And Ranging
2
Radar Introduction
- How does Radar Work
- History of Radar
- Uses of Radar
- Types of Meteorological Radars
3
How does radar work
Radar – A measuring tool that radiates electromagnetic

(EM) energy into the atmosphere from an antenna and
detects the reflected energy, providing target information.
I.e. presence, direction, elevation, distance, intensity and
velocity of objects.
4
History of Radar
- During the 1930s, radio experiments produced
anomalies on the Potomac River.
- Development of Radar like instruments occurred
simultaneously in the US, UK, France, Italy,
Germany, Russia, and Japan.
- US and UK began joint effort in 1940 - 41.
- Britain's Magnetron tube was critical to high
power, high frequency, and accuracy.
5
Uses of Radar
Air Traffic Control
6
Uses of Radar
Military Air Defense
7
Uses of Radar
Meteorological
8
Types of Meteorological Radar
Conventional Doppler – detects phase shift critical

to velocity and spectrum width detection.
Polarimetric Doppler – transmission in both

horizontal and vertical plane; critical to particle type
detection.
9
Types of Meteorological Radars
Conventional and Dual Polarization Radars
10
Types of Meteorological Radar
– Conventional Doppler
11
Types of Meteorological Radars
– Polarimetric Doppler (Dual Polarization)
12
Agenda
- Radar Principles and Definitions
- Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation
- Radar Frequency and Propagation
- Radar Equation
- Radar Moments
13
Radar Principles
and
Definitions
Introduction
Radar Meteorology - use of radar technology in
the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena
Precipitation - type, intensity, location and

movement
Wind direction and speed - turbulence, wind

shear, rotation, confluence and diffluence
Other Phenomena – dust, birds, insects, ash, etc

15
Transmitter
Source of EM pulse sent from antenna to the atmosphere.
Determines radar’s: power output, operating frequency (f)
and wavelength (λ)
Transmitter Types:
o Magnetron: 250 KW – 1 MW
o Klystron: 250 KW - 1 MW
o Solid State: Low power
Frequency and Wavelength:
o S band: 2,700 to 2,900 MHz
cm
o C band: 5,200 to 5,900 MHz
cm
o X band: 8,500 to 10,700 MHz
cm
16
Transmitter/ Pulse Characteristics
Pulse Width (PW)
PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency) = 1/PRT
PW - measured at 70% Power points

17
Transmitter/ Pulse Characteristics
On Time Off Time
ON TIME PW
DUTY CYCLE =
ON TIME + OFF TIME = PRT
PRF (Pulse Repetition Rrequency) = 1/PRT
AVERAGE POWER = DUTY CYCLE X PEAK POWER

18
Antenna Types and Gain
Isotropic vs.
Directional
Meteorological Radars – Directional 19

main lobe
Directional Antenna side lobes
Propagation Pattern
back lobes
20
Beamwidth is
measured at the
½ Power Points
21
Antenna and Pulse Characteristics
Pulse Volume
Pulse Volume is the actual space occupied by the transmitted

pulse at a given time (varies with range)
22
Locating Targets
Target
- Height N
Vertical
Plane
Elevation
Azimuth
REFERENCE COORDINATE
SYSTEM 23
ALTITUDE - RADAR BEAM
Considering effect of earth's curvature and refraction
2.0°
1.5°
1.0°
0.5°
0°
Radar
HEIGHT
OF
BEAM
24
25
26
27
Locating Targets
Range
Measurements
Range Measurements
300,000 km/sec
186,000 mi/sec Speed of Light
162,000 nm/sec
1
= 6.18 µsec / nautical mile
162,000
1
= 3.33 µsec / kilometer
300,000 or 3.33 nsec / meter
29
Range Calculations
100 Kilometers
333 out + 333 back = 667 μsec round trip
Transmitted Pulse
Received Echo from Target
667 μsec from transmitted pulse = 100 kilometers range 30

Range Limitations
Minimum Range
– Pulse Width and Recovery Time
Maximum Range
– Peak Power
– Receiver Sensitivity
– Operating Frequency
– PRF
31
Range Limitations
Operating Wavelengths:
S-band: 10cm – weather surveillance

C-band: 5cm – weather surveillance at shorter
distances (than S-band)
X-band: 3cm – narrow beamwidth, greater
resolution, but easily attenuated
32
Range Limitations
Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF)
Transmitted
Pulse
PRT
(Pulse Repetition Time)
33
Range Limitations
PRF and Maximum Range
The distance Rmax = c · PRT/2 is the greatest

distance for which the radar can correctly
locate a storm in range.
Rmax = c/(2·PRF) or
Rmax (in KM) = PRT (in secs) / 6.67

34
Range Limitations
Rmax = c · PRT/2
c = speed of light Range Folded

PRT = Time (Second Trip Echo)
between pulses
Returns received after R appear as

max
Ambiguous returns or Second Trip Echoes 35

Target Within Rmax
36
Range Folded – Beyond Rmax
37
Example of Ambiguous returns
38
Source of Ambiguous returns
39
Radar Accuracy
Radar Resolution – dependent on how well-
built the radar system is
Target Resolution
- Range Resolution
- Bearing or Azimuth Resolution
Pulse Shape
Atmospheric Conditions
40
½ PL
RANGE
RESOLUTION
41
1 BW
BEARING
RESOLUTION
42
Radar Accuracy
Pulse Shape
Max Power output
Vertical Leading and trailing edges
43
Electromagnetic Waves
and
Propagation
Electromagnetic Propagation
Electric Field on the vertical plane E & H Fields are in phase
In the Radiated Field
02/02/10 09/23/11 RdrMet1 45

45
Polarization
46
Wavefront
Electric Lines Magnetic Lines
Horizontally Polarized Wavefront

RdrMet1 47
Components of a Sine-Wave
Wavelength = λ
180° -90° 0° +90° 180° -90° 0° +90° 180° -90° 0° +90° 180°
Phase
φ=0
48
Characteristics of -½ πr COSINE
a Sine Wave +1½ πr
Phase SINE
Shift
±πr φ 0πr
x-axis 2πr
Total length of
y-axis
the sine wave
(λ) is 2πr +½ πr
-1½ πr
49
Frequency and Wavelength: f = c / 
c = Speed of Light in vacuum.
 = Wavelength.
For example, a wave with a wavelength cycle of 1

cm, would have a frequency of:
3.00  108 m/s

f = --------------------- = 3.00  1010 = 30 GHz
1.00  10-2 m/cycle
50
Frequencies and Wavelengths:
S band: 2,700 to 2,900 MHz

cm
C band: 5,200 to 5,900 MHz
cm
X band: 8,500 to 10,700 MHz
cm
51
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation via
VLF Very Low 3–30 kHz 100–10 km Guided between the earth and the ionosphere.
Frequency
LF Low Frequency 30–300 kHz 10–1 km Guided between the earth and the D layer of
the ionosphere.
Surface waves.
MF Medium Frequency 300–3000 kHz 1000–100 m Surface waves.

E, F layer ionospheric refraction at night,
when D layer absorption weakens.
HF High Frequency 3–30 MHz 100–10 m E layer ionospheric refraction.

(Short Wave) F1, F2 layer ionospheric refraction.
VHF Very High 30–300 MHz 10–1 m Infrequent E ionospheric refraction.

Frequency Extremely rare F1,F2 layer ionospheric
refraction during high sunspot activity up to
80 MHz. Generally direct wave. Sometimes
tropospheric ducting.
UHF Ultra High 300–3000 MHz 100–10 cm Direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric
Frequency ducting.
SHF Super High 3–30 GHz 10–1 cm Direct wave.
Frequency
02/02/10 5/5/2019 RdrMet1 52
EHF Extremely High 30–300 GHz 10–1 mm Direct wave limited by absorption. 52
Frequency
Radar Frequency
and
Propagation
Radar Frequency and Propagation
Refraction
54
 Frequency and Wavelength: f = c / 
– c = Speed of Light in vacuum.
–  = Wavelength.
 Refractive Index (unitless): n = c/u  1.
– u = Speed of light in medium.
– n is the real component of complex Refractive
Index, m = n - (i · k), where i = (-1)1/2 and k is
absorption coefficient of medium.
– n = 1.0003 at sea level and 1.0000 in space.
55
 Refractivity: A normalized refractive index.

– N = (n - 1) · 106. If n = 1.0003, then N = 300.
 Atmospheric Refractivity depends on:

– Atmospheric Pressure ( P ) in mb.
– Temperature (T ) in Kelvin.
– Vapor Pressure (e ) in mb.
– Number of free electrons (Ne) per m3.
– Radar Frequency (f ) in Hz.
56
 Atmospheric Refractivity is:
– N = (77.6/T)·(P + 4810 (e/T)) - 4.03·107(Ne/f2)
 Altitude (H) increase  Refractivity (N) &

Refractive Index (n) decrease, thus:
– The refractive gradient (derivative
dN/dH) is normally negative.
57
 Wave front speed also varies inversely with
Refractivity
 Wave front is faster at lower Refractivity
(higher altitude).
 Sincealtitude change gives both
Refractivity and wave front speed change,
the wave front and its perpendicular ray
bend.
58
 Standard Refraction: The dN/dH gradient in
the ‘standard atmosphere’. The ray curves
with radius, R’.
 Std Refraction: dN/dH = 39 N units/km
 Radarbeam will bend slightly downward
towards the Earth in normal straight line
59
 Anomalous Propagation (AP): When the beam
does not bend normally
Subrefraction: radar beam bends less than normal.

• Temperature and humidity distributions create an
increasing value of N with height. This occurs when
density contrast in the atmosphere is weak, such as
when water vapor content increases and/or
temperature decreases rapidly with height.
60
 Anomalous Propagation (AP)
Superrefraction: downward bending relative

to normal.
• If the atmosphere’s temperature increases with
height (inversion) and/or the water vapor content
decreases rapidly with height, the refractivity
gradient will decrease from the standard.
61
 Anomalous Propagation (AP):
Ducting: radar wave is trapped in a layer.

• Frequent occurrence when strong inversions are
present.
62
Refraction
02/02/10 5/5/2019 RdrMet1 63

63
Attenuation
–Absorption
Oxygen
Water Vapor
–Scattering
64
Attenuation of the Radar Beam
Consider attenuation due to:

– Air
– Clouds
– Rain
– Snow
– Hail
65
due to Air
Main source of attenuation is Oxygen for S-Band
and C-Band radars (generally less than 0.01 dB/km).
- Significant only for scanning elevations < 5 degree
- Little contribution beyond range of 180 km
- Correction provided in EDGE
66
due to Clouds
Highly variable - depends on temperature
and liquid water content.
- Little effect from ice clouds
- Difficult to correct for
- May be significant for X-Band
67
due to Rain
- Of major significance in large storms.
- Major problem for X-Band Radars.

- Can be corrected for.
68
due to Snow
- Much less effect than rain.
- More attenuation than in clouds, but

not generally a problem.
69
due to Hail
- Highly variable
- Restricted to small regions
- Large wet hail can cause major
attenuation problems.
- Difficult to quantify and correct for
70
Radar Data Moments
Data Moments
 Measured Empirical Data Moments:
– Intensity
– Velocity
– Spectrum Width
– Differential Reflectivity
– Differential Phase
– Correlation Coefficient
72
Radar Equation
73
Radar Equation and Intensity
 Intensity
data is determined from the
amount of power received by the radar
– Point Targets - a single Echo from a
target in a sample area.
– Distributed Targets - several returns
within a sample area.
74
Radar Equation and Point Target
(Intensity/Reflectivity)
 Transmitter Characteristics
– Power Output
– Frequency (Wavelength)
 Antenna (parabolic, circular reflector):

– Antenna Gain
– Beamwidth
– Reflector size and shape is determined by Tx
wavelength and desired beamwidth.
75
 Isotropic Radiator
– Radiates energy equally in all directions.
– Area covered by a single expanding wave
is the surface area of the corresponding
sphere:
Area = 4 ·  · r2
Power Density = S = Tx Pwr (Pt) /

Area
76
A target will re-radiate energy from the radar

isotropically. The radar will receive the
backscattered energy from the target.
 The target’s backscattering cross-sectional area

is a function not only of its size, shape, and
substance but also radar’s wavelength.
77
A is the physical area of target.

The Radar, however, sees the
Hydrometeor’s backscatter
cross-sectional area, .
78
A sphere’s normalized backscatter cross-

sectional area (), as a function of radius, a,
presents three distinct regions:
– Rayleigh [0.1  (2a/)  1.0]: An order of
magnitude change in the target’s diameter
yields a six order of magnitude change in the
backscatter cross-sectional area, hence the
reason for D6 in the equation for .
79
– Mie or Resonance [1 < (2a/) < 10.0]: For
certain target sizes, backscatter cross-sectional
area can actually decrease as size increases.
Radar’s using two wavelengths on targets in
same space can detect hail in this size interval.
– Optical [10.0 < (2a/)]: As the target gets

larger, the target’s backscatter cross-sectional
area will approach the size of the target’s
geometric area.
80
10
1.0
sphere / a2
Rayleigh region Mie or resonance Optical

0. 1 region region
0.01
0.001
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
02/02/10 5/5/2019 wavelength = 2  a /
Circumference / RdrMet1 81
 When the [Hydrometeor Diameter (D)/]

value is:
 Large (e.g. 10 to 16) then A =  =  · r2.
 Small(e.g. 1/16 to 1/10) and A. The sphere is in
the Rayleigh region, so:  = (5 · |K|2 · D6) / 4.
` Note: K is related to the material’s
complex index of refraction.
82
 Power intercepted by target, , with cross-

sectional area, A at range, r:
– p = (pt·g·A) / (4··r2)
 Isotropically re-radiated power by large
point target, s, travels back to the radar and
is intercepted by the antenna:
– pr = (p ·Ae) / (4··r2)
– Ae = Rx ant effective area = (g·) / (4·)
83
 Combining expressions for pand Ae into

the equation for pr gives us:
tg A 2 2
p 
p
r 64 r
3 4
84
(Intensity/Reflectivity
 Short Version: The more power received

by the antenna at the same range, the bigger
the object is.
85
Radar Equation and Distributed
Targets
Targets (Intensity/Reflectivity)
 Meteorologicaltarget  many reflectors in
radar beam’s pulse volume.
Pulse Volume is the actual space occupied

By the transmitted pulse at a given time
87
A beam’s pulse volume for a 1° circular

beamwidth at 60 km range and a pulse width of
1 μsec is ≈ 130 million cubic meters, or about
0.13 km3
88
 Clouddroplets : A typical cloud contains
about 2·108 cloud drops/m3 or about
= 2.5836·1016 cloud drops / pulse volume
 Raindrops:20 to 20,000 raindrops/m3
depending on the size and type of storm
= 2.5836 ·109 raindrops / pulse volume
= 2.5836 ·1012 raindrops / pulse volume
89
 Billions of returns in the sample volume
each have a cross- sectional area (i).
Total backscattering cross-sectional area
(t) is:
 
t
i1
i
90
Targets (Intensity/Reflectivity and Velocity)
 Radar beam’s pulse sample volume:

2
   h 
  h

V 
r 
r  
 
r 
2 2 2
 2 2
 Totalbackscattering cross-sectional area is:

Pulse sample volume times backscattering
cross-sectional area of a unit volume:
t Vvo
i
l
Note that  and  are in radians

91
 Previous radar equation assumed all power
of the radar’s transmitted pulse is within the
half-power point beamwidth of the main
lobe. Some power is dispersed in side lobes.
 Probert-Jonesdivided the radar beam’s pulse

volume equation to account for power
dispersed by the circular parabolic reflector.
92
 TheProbert-Jones modified radar beam’s
pulse volume equation:
 1  
  
2
h r h
  
2
Vr 2
22
2
ln 
2 16
ln
2
93
Probert-Jones Equation
where:
Pr = power returned to the radar from a target (watts)
Pt = peak transmitted power (watts)
G = antenna gain
 = angular beamwidth
H = pulse length
 = pi (3.141592654)
K = physical constant (target character)
L = signal loss factors associated with attenuation and receiver detection
Z = target reflectivity
 = transmitted energy wavelength
R = target range
94
Substituting for distributed returns in place
of the point target formula, we have a new
radar equation:
      
2 2

 h
t     
pg 22
r 2
h p
t g i
i
  Vol
 
Vol
p
p
r

64 
16ln
2 
34
r
r
ln
1024 2 r
2 2
95
 Assume raindrops are generally much
smaller then 1/6, i.e. [0.1  (2a/)  1.0].
[Remember, in the Rayleigh region, an order of
magnitude change in target’s diameter yields six
order of magnitude change in the backscatter
cross-sectional area, i.]
 Hence, the backscatter cross-sectional area is:]
 i
 KD
5
i
2
6
4
96
 Reflectivity factor (z): Though each rain
drop diameter can not be known, we
equate the summation of all rain drop
diameters for a unit volume to a
reflectivity factor.
6
z
D -(
m6
m3
-
mn
or
ma
lu
n
it
s
)
v
o
l
97
 Now Radar Equation is:
p 
 
g  
3 2

h K
z
2


t
p 1024
r 
ln2  2 2
r
 Attenuation (l): The loss of pulse energy to

the environment through which it travels.
 Final, complete form of the Radar Equation:
p  
2 3
g 
hK 

l
z
2


t
p
r 
1024
ln2
2 
r2
98
Targets
 Define Radar Constant C1 as:

pg2

3
h
C  t
1
1024ln
2 2
 Andif z represents liquid water and not ice

Hydrometeors and gas attenuation is
constant, then consider k an l constant, so:
99
 The 
term K2
m
1m  

2
1 
whe
mn
ik
is the Complex index of refraction, which is

– |K|2 = 0.93 for water (default value).
– |K|2 = 0.197 for ice.
100
Targets
Combining all the constants,

our radar equation looks like:
And Finally--
101
Radar Equation
z
Pr = C  2
r
OR—
The Power received by the radar is equal

to the radar constant times the amount of
water in the sample divided by the range
squared
102
Targets
 Since the power decreases exponentially

with range, the calculated reflectivity value
is adjusted based on the distance the target
is from the radar.
 This is Range Normalization
103
Doppler Measurement and
Velocity
104
Velocity
 Doppler Effect:
– Motion of target toward or away from radar
antenna produces frequency shift.
– First identified with sound waves, but applies to
electromagnetic waves as well.
105
Velocity
106
Velocity
Wavelength = λ
180° -90° 0° +90° 180° -90° 0° +90° 180° -90° 0° +90° 180°
Phase
φ=0
107
Velocity
 Phase of Electromagnetic Wave:
– The fraction of a full wavelength at a
particular point is from a reference point
measured in radians or degrees.
– 2radians in a full wavelength.
108
y-axis
-½ πr COSINE
(“Q” Video Data)
Phase SINE
Shift (“I” Video Data)
±πr φ x-axis
0πr
2πr
Total length of
the sine wave
VELOCITY PROCESSING
109
Velocity
 Phase of the wave returning from a target is:
0 r/
where:
 is phase of the return signal.
0 is initial phase of transmitted signal.
r is target distance in meters or miles.
r/is distance to target in radians.
110
Velocity
 As an object moves, the distance from the

radar changes, so with each pulse, the phase
of the returned signal will change.
 The amount of shift depends on the velocity

of the target and how fast you transmit the
next pulse, or the PRF.
111
Velocity
 By measuring the amount of shift between

pulses, we can determine how far the
object moved.
 This is known as Pulse-Pair processing
112
Velocity
 The direction of the phase shift (+ or -) will
indicate the direction of the movement.
– Objects moving towards the radar produce
negative phase-shifts.
– Objects moving away produce positive phase-
shifts.
– Objects that are moving laterally with the radar
will produce no frequency shift and are
displayed as stationary.
113
Velocity
 Rateat which return signal changes phase
with time due to target motion is:
v/
where:
v is radial velocity of the target.
is wavelength of the radar.
114
Velocity
 Rate of change of phase with time is the
angular frequency, 
  is related to frequency, f, by:
f
but from the previous slide:
v / 
 frequency shift as a function of velocity:
f = 2 v / 
115
Velocity
 Velocity and Range Ambiguity:
– Maximum frequency shift measurable, depends
on PRF and the wavelength of the operating
frequency.
– Phase shift of + radians is indistinguishable
from phase shift of  radians.
– Velocities over +/-  radians will appear to
fold, appearing to be going in the opposite
direction
116
y-axis
-½ πr COSINE
(“Q” Video Data)
Phase SINE
Shift (“I” Video Data)
±πr φ x-axis
0πr
2πr
Total length of
the sine wave
VELOCITY PROCESSING
117
Velocity
 Velocity and Range Ambiguity:
– fmax is the maximum detectable frequency shift.
It corresponds to the velocity at which a target
moves exactly  wavelength between
pulsesIt is the Nyquist Frequency.
– vmax is the maximum unambiguous velocity
corresponding to fmax. It is the Nyquist Velocity
or Velocity-to-Fold.
118
Velocity
 Velocity and Range Ambiguity
 To increase the velocity to fold, you need to
send another pulse out BEFORE the object
has the chance to move ½ wavelength.
– Increasing PRF increases fmax.
– Increasing either PRF or  increases vmax.
119
Velocity
 From frequency shift as a function of
velocity:
Vmax = fmax2
 At least 2 samples per half wavelength are
needed, therefore:
fmax = PRF / 2
So:
Vmax = PRF
120
Velocity
 For Example—
– If your PRF is 1180 pps, and
– Operating frequency is 5600 MHz,
 Your maximum unambiguous frequency is:
– Vmax = 1180pps x 5.357cm / 4 = 15.8 m/s
121
Velocity
 The Doppler Dilemma:
– PRF determines maximum range (Slide 68):
rmax = c / (2 · PRF)
– Dilemma is:
 IncreasedPRF increases vmax and decreases rmax.
 Decreased PRF decreases vmax and increases rmax.
– Longer wavelength helps, but not practical.
122
Velocity
 Living with Doppler Dilemma:
– Recognize velocity aliasing from the following
image.
– Look for places where maximum positive and

maximum negative velocities border each other
(1st fold and multiple folds).
123
Velocity Aliasing
02/02/10 5/5/2019 124

Velocity
 Unfolding - By staggering the PRF, the
changes in the phase shifts detected by the
radar can be mathematically calculated to
extend the maximum detectable velocity.
125
Velocity
 Alternating between its normal PRF and a
PRF 2/3 the original (for 2X unfolding), 3/4
the original (for 3X unfolding) or 5/6 the
original (for 5X unfolding) the unambiguous
velocity may increase up to 5 times as with a
single PRF.
126
Signal Quality
Correlation
Signal Quality and Velocity
 Correlation is a statistical measure
indicating how related two radar
signals are. Values run between 0
and 1, with 0 being no relation and 1
being an identical match-up in the
two signals.
128
 Often-noisy weak returns will provide
false reports of velocity
 SignalQuality index is a measure of

the accuracy of a return by comparing
two samples of a return for Correlation
129
 De-correlation Time (t0.01): Time for

correlation value of target sample to go
from 1.0 to 0.01. “Time to Independence”.
– 1.0 Means the two samples were identical
– 0.00 Means the two samples are completely
different
130
 De-correlation coefficient allows you to set
the level at which you will reject levels as
noise.
 De-correlation Times (t0.01= 2· or 3·)
range from 3.5 to 30 ms depending on the
storm and the radar.
131
 De-correlationtime is shorter if:

– Wavelength is short.
– Hydrometeors are all of different sizes.
– Turbulence is great.
132
Spectrum Width
Spectrum Width Measurement
 Phasesampling results in more than simply
a velocity measurement.
 With proper sampling techniques and

processing, the variability of the velocities
in a sample can be measured.
134
 Variance of velocity is:
 2

i
N


1
v
i v
a
ve
2
N
1

 Square root of variance, is the standard

deviation of velocity. It has the same units
as velocity.
is also called “Spectrum or Spectrum
Width”. It is available as a display for most
Doppler radars.
135
Spectrum Width
f0 = mean phase shift

fa/fb = deviations
from mean
fa fb fa fb
f0 f0
Narrow Wide Frequency

Frequency Domain
Domain
136
Spectrum Width
 The mean measured frequency within
the sample area is reported as the
velocity of the sample area.
 The measure of the standard deviation
is reported as the Spectrum width, and
is an indication of turbulence within
the sample area.
137
 Sources of Velocity Variance:
–  s - Wind Shear across sample volume.
2
–  a - Antenna Motion.
2
–  d - Differential Fall Speeds of Hydrometeors.

2
–  t - Atmospheric Turbulence.
2
138
 s
2
- Wind Shear:
– Effect due to change in wind velocity.
– Sample volume depends on antenna
beamwidth, pulse width, and distance from
radar.
– Vertical Wind Shear at the tops of inversions
are detectable.
– Gust Fronts also show as regions of enhanced
Spectrum Width.
139
 - Antenna Motion:
2
 a
– Antenna does not stop during sampling.

– For early samples, the antenna is moving
towards center of volume.
– For late samples, the antenna is moving away
from center of volume.
– Since Antenna rotation is constant, this source
does not produce variations in Spectrum Width.
140
d -
2
Differential Fall Speeds of
Hydrometeors:
– Contribution depends on scan elevation angle.
– Important primarily at moderately high
elevation angles.
– Some research radars operate in a vertical
pointing mode precisely to monitor
hydrometeor fall speeds and variability.
141
t
2
- Atmospheric Turbulence:
– Small scale velocity variations within sample
volume.
– Meteorologically important contribution.
– Turbulence near the ground in clear air may be
detectable due to presence of dust and insects.
142
Enterprises Electronics Corporation
RADAR Theory and Principles

Questions?

Radar Theory and Principles Part 1 - Slides

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radar Theory and Principles Part 1 - Slides

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Enterprises Electronics Corporation

Radar: RAdio Detection And Ranging

- Types of Meteorological Radars

Radar – A measuring tool that radiates electromagnetic

Air Traffic Control

Military Air Defense

Conventional Doppler – detects phase shift critical

Polarimetric Doppler – transmission in both

- Electromagnetic Waves and Propagation

- Radar Frequency and Propagation

Precipitation - type, intensity, location and

Wind direction and speed - turbulence, wind

Other Phenomena – dust, birds, insects, ash, etc

PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency) = 1/PRT

PW - measured at 70% Power points

PRF (Pulse Repetition Rrequency) = 1/PRT

AVERAGE POWER = DUTY CYCLE X PEAK POWER

Meteorological Radars – Directional 19

Pulse Volume is the actual space occupied by the transmitted

333 out + 333 back = 667 μsec round trip

667 μsec from transmitted pulse = 100 kilometers range 30

S-band: 10cm – weather surveillance

The distance Rmax = c · PRT/2 is the greatest

Rmax (in KM) = PRT (in secs) / 6.67

c = speed of light Range Folded

Returns received after R appear as

Ambiguous returns or Second Trip Echoes 35

Max Power output

Vertical Leading and trailing edges

02/02/10 09/23/11 RdrMet1 45

Electric Lines Magnetic Lines

Horizontally Polarized Wavefront

For example, a wave with a wavelength cycle of 1

3.00  108 m/s

S band: 2,700 to 2,900 MHz

Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation via

MF Medium Frequency 300–3000 kHz 1000–100 m Surface waves.

HF High Frequency 3–30 MHz 100–10 m E layer ionospheric refraction.

VHF Very High 30–300 MHz 10–1 m Infrequent E ionospheric refraction.

 Refractivity: A normalized refractive index.

 Atmospheric Refractivity depends on:

 Altitude (H) increase  Refractivity (N) &

Subrefraction: radar beam bends less than normal.

Superrefraction: downward bending relative

Ducting: radar wave is trapped in a layer.

02/02/10 5/5/2019 RdrMet1 63

Consider attenuation due to:

- Significant only for scanning elevations < 5 degree

- Little contribution beyond range of 180 km

- Correction provided in EDGE

- Of major significance in large storms.

- Major problem for X-Band Radars.

- Much less effect than rain.

- More attenuation than in clouds, but

 Antenna (parabolic, circular reflector):

Power Density = S = Tx Pwr (Pt) /

A target will re-radiate energy from the radar

 The target’s backscattering cross-sectional area

A is the physical area of target.

A sphere’s normalized backscatter cross-

– Optical [10.0 < (2a/)]: As the target gets

Rayleigh region Mie or resonance Optical

 When the [Hydrometeor Diameter (D)/]

 Power intercepted by target, , with cross-