CHAPTER 1

DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
OF SOILS

Engr. M Nasir Taher

FKAAS, UTHM
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

What is…
1. Soil Mechanics?
2. Geotechnics?
3. Geotechnical Engineering?
 Soil Mechanics and Geotechnics
- a sub-set of Geotechnical Engineering
- also known as ‘Geomechanics’ or ‘Geotechniques’
- defined as “the application of engineering mechanics to
problems with soils as a foundation and a construction
material”
- used to understand and interpret the properties,
behaviour and performance of soils

 Geotechnical Engineering
- defined as “the application of soil mechanics, geology and
hydraulics in the analysis and design of geotechnical
systems (e.g. dams, tunnels, foundations, roads, etc.)”
EARLY GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING SUCCESSES
• The Pyramids in Egypt
• Ancient Roman Roads and Aqueducts
• The Great Wall of China
• The Erie Canal
• The Panama Canal
• Druid Lake Dam
• Brooklyn Bridge
SOIL DESCRIPTION
• It is necessary to adopt a formal system of
soil description and classification- to
describe the various materials found in
ground investigation.

• Such a system must be comprehensive

(covering all but the rarest of deposits),
meaningful in an engineering context (so
that engineers will be able to understand
and interpret) and yet relatively concise.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION

Description
• A statement describing the physical nature
and state of the soil.
• It can be a description of a sample, or a soil
in situ.
• Uses visual examination, simple tests,
observation of site conditions, geological
history, etc.
Classification
• The separation of soil into classes or
groups each having similar characteristics
and potentially similar behaviour.
• A classification for engineering purposes
should be based mainly on mechanical
properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness,
strength.
• The class to which a soil belongs can be
used in its description.
1.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

• Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock

fragments, etc.) with water and air in the
voids between grains.

• The water and air contents are readily

changed by changes in conditions and
location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no
water content) or be fully saturated (have
no air content) or be partially saturated
(with both air and water present).
Fig. 1 Soil matrix.
SOIL AS A CIVIL ENGINEERING
MATERIAL
• Soils are NOT continuous, homogenous,
isotropic, linear and elastic materials.
• Soil masses consist of multiphase
components (i.e., they consist of a solid
phase and voids which may be filled by air,
water or other types of fluids)
• Soil response is inherently time-dependent
(i.e., soils continue to deform with time
under constant loading conditions).
• We only know the nature of a soil deposit
via a relatively few samples (which can be
subjected to sampling disturbance), via
proving (using in situ field tests), via
geophysical surveys, and from the geology
of an area.
1.2 COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Soil

A soil sample. An idealised soil sample.

Fig. 2 Components of soils.

• Soils contain 3 components, which may be
characterized as solid, liquid, and gas.

• The solid components of soils are

weathered rock and (sometimes) decayed
vegetation.

• The liquid component of soils is almost

always water (often with dissolved matter),
while the air component consists of gases.

• The volume of water and air combined is

referred to as the void.
1.3 SOIL PARTICLES AND SHAPES

 Soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are

visible to the naked eye or may be examined
by means of a hand lens. They constitute the
coarser fractions of the soils.

 Grains finer than 0.075 mm constitute the

finer fractions of soils.

 It is possible to distinguish the grains lying

between 0.075 mm and 2 μ, (1μ, = 1 micron =
0.001 mm) under a microscope.
 Grains having a size between 2 μ and 0.1 μ
can be observed under a microscope but
their shapes cannot be made out.

 The shape of grains smaller than 1 μ can be

determined by means of an electron
microscope.

 The molecular structure of particles can be

investigated by means of X-ray analysis.
SHAPES OF SOIL PARTICLES

Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported

sediments

Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges;

glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided
into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular')
Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges;
residual soils, grits

Flaky: Thickness small compared to

length/breadth; clays
Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness;
scree, broken flagstone

Flaky and Elongated:

Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists
and slates
PARTICLE SIZE CLASSIFICATION BY VARIOUS
SYSTEMS
1.4 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
 Particle sizes vary considerably, from those
measured in microns (e.g. clays) to those
measured in meters (e.g. boulders).

 Most natural soils are composite soils: a

mixture of different particles size and the
distribution.

 Natural soils may be assigned names such as

silty clay, clayey sand and sandy gravel, if
the amounts of various constituent sizes are
known.
 Two methods are generally used to determine particles
size distribution of soils:
1. Sieve analysis
- for particles sizes larger than 0.075mm in diameter.
2. Hydrometer analysis
- for particles sizes smaller than 0.075mm in diameter.
 Two methods are generally used to determine particles
size distribution of soils:
1. Sieve analysis
- for particles sizes larger than 0.075mm in diameter.
2. Hydrometer analysis
- for particles sizes smaller than 0.075mm in diameter.
 Purpose of particles size analysis of soils:

1. For soil classification.

2. For designing inverted filters for dams, levees, etc.
3. For estimating permeability of granular soils.
4. For establishing the susceptibility to frost damage
of soils.
 Classification of soils based on particle size:

USCS

ASSHT
O
MIT

ASTM

USDA
Sieve Analysis
 Sieve analysis consists of shaking the
soil sample through a set of sieves that
have progressively smaller openings.
 To conduct a sieve analysis, one must
first oven-dry the soil and then break
all lumps into small particles.
 The soil is then shaken through a
stack of sieves with openings of
decreasing size from top to bottom and
the pan is placed below the stack.
 After the soil is shaken, the mass of
soil retained on each sieve is
determined.
 When cohesive soils are analyzed, breaking the
lumps into individual particles may be difficult.
 In this case, the soil may be mixed with water to
make slurry and then washed through the sieves.
 Portions retained on each sieve are collected
separately and oven-dried before the mass retained
on each sieve is weighed.
 Uniformly graded- approximately
one size, Cu < 4.

Gap graded- absence of

certain particle size, Cc > 3.

Well graded- a mixture of particle

sizes, Cu > 4, 1 < Cc < 3.

Figure 3: Typical particle size distribution chart.

Effective Size- D10
 The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil.
 The diameter through which 10 % of the soil mass is
passing.
 Established by Allen Hazen (1893) in connection with his
work on soil filters.
 Is the diameter of an artificial sphere that will
approximately produce the same effect of an irregular
shaped particle.
 The higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil and the
better the drainage characteristics.
Coefficient of Uniformity- Cu or UC
 Soil that has Cu<4 contains particles of uniform size
(approximately one size).
 Minimum value of UC is 1, and corresponds to an
assemblage of particles of the same size.
 Higher values of UC (>4) indicate a wider assortment of
particle sizes.
 Soil that has a UC >4 is described as a well-graded soil
and is indicated by a flat curve.
Coefficient of Curvature- Cc
 Also known as coefficient of gradation and the coefficient
of concavity.
 The Cc is between 1 and 3 (1 < Cc < 3) for well-graded
soils.
 The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is
diagnosed by a Cc outside the range 1 to 3 and a sudden
change of slope in the particle size distribution curve.
Hydrometer Analysis
 Conducted by taking a small
quantity of a dry fine-grained soil
(approximately 10 grams) and
thoroughly mixing it with
distilled water to form a paste. Hydrometer

 The paste is then placed in a 1

Increasing density
liter glass cylinder and distilled
water is added to bring the level Soil
suspension
to the 1 liter mark.
 The glass cylinder is then
repeatedly shaken and inverted
before being placed in a constant-
temperature bath.
 A hydrometer is finally placed in the glass cylinder
and a clock is simultaneously started.
 Based on Stoke’s law:
Dispersed soil particles of various shapes and sizes
fall freely in water under their own weight as non-
interacting spheres.
Particles settle at different velocities, depending on
their shape, size, and weight, and the viscosity of the
water.
 Designed to give the amount of soil, in grams, that is
still in suspension.
1.5 ATTERBERG LIMITS OF FINE-GRAINED
SOILS

Consistency of cohesive soils

 Water has significant effects on the clay minerals in a
fine-grained soil.
 In 1911, Atterberg (Sweden) introduced a method for
describing the limit consistency of fine-grained soils
based on the water content.
 Limit consistency- the limiting water content before a
soil transforms from one state to the other.
 Known as the Atterberg limits: liquid limit, plastic
limit, shrinkage limit.
 Liquid limit (LL)
• The water content, at which the soil changes from
liquid to plastic state.
• Tests: Fall cone test or Casagrande’s method.
 Plastic limit (PL)
• The water content, at which the soil changes from
plastic to semi-solid state.
• Test: Rolling of soil sample into threads.
 Shrinkage limit (SL)
• The water content, at which the soil changes from
semi- solid to solid state.
• Test: Drying of soil paste and filling with mercury.
 Drying

SL PL LL

Figure 4: Soil states as a function of volume and water

content.
 The Atterberg limits (LL, PL and SL) are affected by the
amount and type of clay minerals, and the type of absorbed
cations.
 Plasticity index, PI = LL - PL
 Liquidity index, LI = (w - PL) / PI, where w is the natural
water content.
 For a soil in plastic state, PL < w < LL, and so 0 < LI < 1.
 If w > LL, then LI > 1.
In undisturbed condition, the soil is stable. However
slight disturbance (sudden vibration) can change it to a
liquid state- sensitive clays.
 Skempton (1953) observed that PI is directly
proportionate to the percentage of clay-size fraction:
Activity, A = PI/C, where C = percent of clay-size
fraction by weight
Typical Atterberg Limits for Soils

Soil Type WLL(%) WPL(%) Ip(%)

Sand Non plastic

Silt 30 – 40 20 – 25 10 – 15

Clay 40 – 150 25 – 50 15 - 100

1.7 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Why ‘classify’ the soils?

 The main purpose of soil classification systems is to
provide a uniform convention for naming different soil
types, such that there is less ambiguity and confusion
between practitioners on the usage of terminologies.
 Over the years, through their constant and consistent
use, the soil classification systems have provided the
first indication of the behavior of a particular soil.
 Soil classifications have evolved from using general
terms to empirical systems that are developed to serve
a specific need of a particular engineering work.
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
 Co-developed by the US Bureau of Reclamation
(USBR) and the Army Corp of Engineer in1952
following the airfield classification system developed
by Casagrande (1932).
 This is the most widely used soil classification system
in geotechnical engineering.
 The system uses grain size as the first level of
classifying soils to divide coarse-grained and fine-
grained soils.
 For fine-grained soils, the Atterberg limits and the
Casagrande plasticity chart are used to classify silts
and clays.
 Essentially uses 2 letters to describe a soil- the first
indicates the main soil type, the second denotes the
qualifying subdivision .

Prefix Suffix
Coarse grained W = well graded
G = more than 50%* retained in #4 (4.75 P = poorly graded
mm) sieve M = containing silt
S = more than 50%* pass through #4 C = containing clay
(4.75 mm) sieve
Fine grained L = low plasticity
M = silts (LL < 50%)
C = clays H = high plasticity
O = organic (clay or silt) (LL > 50

PT = peat
Guide to the USCS.
Plasticity chart used in the USCS.

U-line

A-line
ASSHTO System
 The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (ASSHTO) soil classification
system is specifically suited for classifying soils for
earthwork structures (subgrades, bases, sub-bases,
and embankments).
 The system has seven main soils groups (A1-A7).
 Similar to the USC system, data are tested by moving
from left to right, and by process of elimination, data
are tested into which category fit.
 In addition to the group and subgroup classifications,
a Group Index (GI) is calculated and incorporated in
the calculation to give an indication of the quality of a
soil as a highway subgrade material.
 GI is calculated using the particle size distribution and
the Atterberg limits according to the formula:

GI = (F200 -35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL-40)]+0.01(F200-15)(PI-10)

F200 = percentage passing though sieve #200

LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
 However there are some rules for determining GI
(Das, 1985):

1. If the equation gives a negative value, then GI is

taken to be zero.

2. GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number.

3. There is no upper limit to GI.

4. The GI of soils belonging to A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-

2-5 and A-3 is always zero.

5. The GI of soils belonging to A-2-6 and A-2-7 is

calculated as: GI = 0.01 (F200 -15)(PI -10)
Description of Classification Groups in the ASSHTO
system
Subgroup A-1a Includes those materials consisting predominantly of stone fragments or
gravel
Subgroup A-1b Includes those materials consisting predominantly of coarse sand, either with
or without a well-graded soil binder
Subgroup A-3 Fine beach sand or fine desert loess sand without silty or clay fines or with a
very small amount of nonplastic silt
Subgroup A-2-4 and Include various granular materials containing 35% or less passing the 0.075
A-2-5 mm sieve and with a minus 0.425 mm in having the characteristics of the A-4
and A-5 groups
Subgroup A-2-6 and Include material similar to that described under subgrades A-2-4 and A-2-5,
A-2-7 except that a fine portion contains plastic clay having the characteristics of
the A-6 or A-7 group
Subgroup A-4 The typical materials of this group are the nonplastic or moderately plastic
silty soils
Subgroup A-5 Similar to that described under group 2-4, except that it is usually of
diatomaceus or micaceous character
Subgroup A-6 Usually a plastic clay having 75% or more passing the 0.075 mm sieve
Subgroup A-7-5 Includes materials with moderate plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit
Subgroup A-7-6 Includes materials with high plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit
Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials
Similarities and Differences
between the USC and ASSHTO systems

Similarities
 Both systems are based on the texture and plasticity
of soils.
 Both systems divide the soils into coarse-grained and
fine grained, as separated by the No. 200 sieve.
Differences
1. AASHTO system
The soil is considered fine-grained if > 35% passes
through the No. 200 sieve.

USC system
The soil is considered fine-grained if > 50% passes
through the No. 200 sieve.

A coarse-grained soil that has about 35% fine grains

will behave like a fine-grained material. This is because
enough fine grains exist to fill the voids between the
coarse grains and hold them apart. In this respect, the
AASHTO system appears to be more appropriate.
 2. AASHTO system
The No. 10 sieve separates gravel from sand.

USC system
The No. 4 sieve separates gravel from sand.

From the viewpoint of soil-separate size limits, the No.

10 sieve is the more accepted upper limit for sand. The
limit is used in concrete and highway base-course
technology.
3. AASHTO system
The gravelly and sandy soils are NOT clearly
separated.

USC system
The gravelly and sandy soils are clearly separated.

The A-2 group, in particular, contains a large variety

of soils.
Symbols like GW, SM, CH, and others that are used
in the Unified systems are more descriptive of the soil
properties than the A symbols used in the AASHTO
system.
4. AASHTO system
No place for organic soils.

USC system
Classifies organic soils as OL, OH and Pt.

Peats usually have a high moisture content, low

specific gravity of soil solids, and low unit weight.