CHAPTER 1

THE ROLE OF ORAL

COMMUNICATION

Prepared by
Stephanie Larry Daniel
 OVERVIEW

Introduction
Goals of Oral Communication
Preparation of Oral Communication
The Importance of Listening
 Recall Listening
 Empathic Listening
 INTRODUCTION

• Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an

attempt to create shared understanding between/among two or more persons.
• Direct face to face communication between two or more persons
• A process of creating meaning between two or more people
• Oral com implies communication through mouth includes individual conversing with
each other, be direct conversation
• For examples; speeches, presentations, discussions, interviews etc.
 INTRODUCTION
• Generally recommended when the communication matter is temporary kind or where a
direct indirection is required.
• Face to face communication is significant so as to build a rapport or trust
• Recently, business leaders have come to recognize the story as a powerful and persuasive
method of communication
• Victoria Synder, President of Communication Connection stated that storytelling is used to
inform, to stimulate imagination and to build community
• Have you ever sat in a presentation or training session where so much information was
dumped on you that you couldn’t remember much of what was said, but you were still able to
remember a story that was told?
 GOALS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Receiver Understanding
2. Receiver Response
3. Favorable Relationship
4. Organizational Goodwill
5. Shared meaning
 Receiver Understanding
• The message must be so clear that the receiver understands it as the sender means it to be
understood
• The sender and receiver must achieved shared meaning
• To develop a clear message, the sender must consider the following four issues;
• Receiver characteristics –
• Message form and content
• Receiver feedback
• Communication barriers
 Receiver Response
• The response may be positive, neutral or negative
• It may be conveyed through words, actions or both
• The goal is achieved when the receiver demonstrates understanding of the message
by providing an appropriate response
• The wording of the message should encourage the response
• In face-to-face conversation, the speaker can ask the listener if he or she understands
the message. Further, the speaker can ask directly for a specific response.
 Favorable Relationship
• Focuses on the people involved in the communication process
• Effective communication helps foster positive relationships between people and organizations
• To establish a strong relationship, the speaker and listener should relate to each other in three
important ways; positively, personally and professionally
• The speaker should assume primary responsibility for creating and maintaining a favorable relationship
by;
i. Stressing the listener’s interests and benefits
ii. Using positive wording
iii. Doing more than is expected
 Organizational Goodwill
• If an organization has the goodwill of its customers, it has their confidence and often
their continued business – the more goodwill a company has, the more successful it
can be
• The positive behaviors allows the employee to generate the goodwill for the
company and achieve the organizational goodwill
 Shared Meaning
• Results when the sender’s intent and the receiver’s interpretation correspond.
• For example, when consultants discuss the importance of corporate values, they
encourage managers to create shared meaning.
• It is vital to a variety of organizational functions and goals.
• It is based on different continuums;
a. Contractual shared meaning
b. Consensual shared meaning
 a. Contractual Shared Meaning
• Two parties each give up something they would rather not part with to get something valuable from
the other person.
• For example, organizations do not want to spend money on bonuses but do so to increase sale.
• This shared meaning does not require the employees agree with the organization’s sales goals or
the choices of products.
• All that is required is for each party to give up something in order to receive something else that
cannot be achieved alone.
• This shared meaning is the basis of many professional interactions.
 b. Consensual Shared Meaning
• Represents relatively greater correspondence between the sender and receiver
• When parties share consensus, they agree about basic objectives and values
• For example, if an employee follows safety precautions because she believes they
protect both the employee and the organization, she expresses a point of view shared
by the management.
• This shared meaning is the basis for most persuasive communication
 PREPARATION OF ORAL
COMMUNICATION
1. Decide on the General Purpose
2. Select a Topic
3. Develop the Specific Purpose Statement
4. Develop the Main Idea Statement
5. Analyze Your Audience
6. Gather Supporting Material
7. Research the Topic
8. Organize Your Presentation
9. Select Appropriate Presentation Aids
 1. Decide on the General Purpose

• Two general purposes common to speaking in

professional situations:
i. To inform – informative speeches teach,
demonstrate, or instruct an audience on some
topics or processes
ii. To persuade – persuasive speeches induces an
audience to accept a belief or action
 2. Select a Topic

• Most professional topics are determined by superiors, the organizations, or the expectations
of the audience.
• For example, if you sell office supplies to local business owners, then the topic is the product
you sell.
• Speakers should consider personal experience and interest – it is difficult to create interest
in an audience if you are bored by the topic or lack the necessary experience to address it.
• Audience interests are also crucial – consider the audience’s expectation about the occasion
before selecting the topic
 3. Develop the Specific Purpose Statement

• Focuses the speech on the aspect of a larger topic

• The specific purpose statement does not specify what the speaker intends to say in the body
of the speech – helps the speaker narrow a broad topic to a particular subject
• Instead, it states the audience outcome that the speakers desires – the outcome is
related to the general purpose of the speech and may include understanding (to inform), or
belief or action (to persuade).
 Cont.
• Examples of specific purpose statement;
i. I want my audience to understand (GP) the effects of globalization on our
local economy. (SP)
ii. I want to persuade (GP) my audience to take advantage of the export
opportunities created by global trade. (SP)
 4. Develop the Main Idea Statement

• The main idea statement is a precise statement of the two to five main ideas in the
speech body.
• Serves as a guide for outlining the body of the speech
• Can be used as the preview of main ideas in the introduction
 Cont.
• Should be stated precisely in a declarative sentence, not a question.
• NOT PRECISE: For this speech I will cover theories about why the body ages,
including random damage and hormonal influences, as well as genetic programs.
• IMPROVED: In this speech, I will cover three theories why the human body ages:
first, random damage; second, hormonal influences; and third, genetic programs.
5. Analyze Your Audience

• Decide exactly who will be your audience and

why
• A captive audience is generally less receptive than
one who attends voluntarily
• Consider how the time of the presentation will
affect the audience – people often get lethargic
after a meal, can be slow to tune in for an early
morning session, etc.
 Cont.
• Analyze audience knowledge, interests, attitudes and potential emotional
reaction regarding your topic
• For large audiences, you may need to examine these factors in categories such as
receivers’ age, gender and profession.
 6. Gather Supporting Material
• Main ideas need examples, statistical support, and quotations from experts for clarity and
proof.
• Examples – specific instances that illustrate a larger point
- an example can be factual, meaning that the instance really happened, or
hypothetical, meaning the instance is a composite of real incidents or the
speaker’s guess about a future event.
 Cont.
• Statistics – a collection of individual examples delivered as raw numbers or averages
- more meaningful when combined with comparisons
- use visual aids to make the data concrete
• Testimony – a direct quotation or paraphrase of witnesses, experts, or other
informed people.
- can make ideas memorable or add credibility to your persuasive appeal
- briefly cite the source of testimony so that the audience can evaluate its
strength
 7. Research the Topic

• Involves collecting supporting material for the specific purpose and main idea
statements
• Typical research tools for professional setting; library, internet, and interview
 Cont.
• Library – computerized catalog can run book searches title, author, or subject
- online catalog depends on developing a list of key terms or phrases from
your specific purpose statement
- periodical indexes and abstracts are paper or electronic databases that
list and/or abstract (summarize) articles in popular academic periodicals
 Cont.

• Internet – a set of linked computer networks that began as federally funded project
to maintain military communication during a nuclear war
- a search engine is a program that selects through an enormous index of
Web pages for key words or phrases
• Interview – face-to-face, telephone, or Internet conversations with experts
- should clearly define the purpose of interview prior to contacting
potential interviewees
 Cont.
- the purpose should relater closely to the specific purpose statement or
one of the main ideas
- develop questions prior to interview so you have something to show if
the interviewee wants to know the questions in advance – the question will also keep
the interview on tract and prevent wasted time
- try to involve more questions that require explanation/elaboration
 8. Organize Your Presentation

• Based on your main points and analysis of the audience

• Sort the material you have collected into three sets:
i. Materials you must include ( closely related to main ideas)
ii. Materials you should include (support main ideas)
iii. Materials you could include (related background materials)
 9. Select Appropriated Presentation Aids

• Most speakers will find sound (audio) and sight (visual) most useful
• Visual can spark interest, add variety, increase comprehension and retention of
material and help to hold an audience’s attention
 Cont.
• It should always be simple, clear and pertinent (relevant).
• The content and the placement of visual aids within the presentation must be
planned carefully
• Determine they type of visual aid will best emphasize, enhance and clarify the
message
 A GLIMPSE ON LISTENING
• It’s the key to all effective communication
• Without effective listening messages are easily misunderstood
• Without it, communication breaks down.

In Short
IT’S VITAL!
 THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING

• To be attentive means to listen without any interpretation, without any judgment — just to
listen. When you are so listening there is no boundary”
- J. Krishnamurti, The Awakening of Intelligence
• Being a student:
• 9% of their day in writing
• 16% of their day in reading
• 30% of their day in speaking
• 45% of their day in LISTENING
 THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING
1. Active Listening Works
• Takes place when a listener focuses his or her full attention on the speaker, avoids
interrupting the speaker, remains nonjudgmental and shows genuine interest in the speaker
• Full attention allows the listener to understand what’s being implied and read
nonverbal clues such as body language and facial expressions that may contradict verbal
words
• An open, inviting posture and small verbal comments such as “yes” or “I understand” can
help uncover the root of most problems.
 Cont.

2. Conflict Resolution
• An ability to listen effectively can turn a disruptive situation into an opportunity for growth
• A way of showing true concern for the speaker and their situation
• This will increase interpersonal bonding, forming a basis for commitment and trust –
can help to calm the situation, relieve negative feelings and provide opportunity for real
problem solving to begin.
 Cont.
3. Motivation and Productivity
• Produce unintended results that ultimately benefit both the listener and speaker
• The better a manager understands his employees the more effectively he can
motivate employees – this makes it easier for a manager to choose appropriate
rewards such as praise, additional responsibilities , etc.
 Cont.

4. Perception Management
• Effective listening can prevent misunderstandings, ensure a first encounter
creates a positive impression and help maintain an organization’s reputation.
• It can create efficient working relationships that not only saves both side
valuable time but can have potentially significant benefits
 RECALL LISTENING
• Involves a person’s ability to correctly interpret and remember the content of another
person’s message
• Includes 4 processes:
i. Receiving – hear and process the message that another communicates
ii. Attending – involves a listener’s ability to focus on the message and direct his or her
attention toward it without distraction
iii. Assigning meaning – assigning an interpretation to it
iv. Remembering – the ability to store and recall the major themes of a conversation for
use in later decision making
Invite People to Talk
• Pay attention to people ‘s nonverbal signals that suggest
they want to say something and indicate that you are ready
to listen
• For example: “You looked puzzled – do you want to talk
about this?”
• Shy people may need special encouragement to talk,
particularly when they are dealing with supervisors
 Motivate Yourself to Listen
• People who lack motivation to listen are ineffective because, from the outset they
regard the content as dull, and listening appears unimportant
• Studies indicate that when subjects are promised a reward to remembering the
content of a presentation, their listening improves over the listening of those not
promised any reward
• To combat the motivation problem, good listeners admit that a subject may sound
dry or that a presentation or group meeting may not be directly related to their job
• Good listeners search the messages for information that will provide insight
into the speaker’s background that could help in matter interaction
• As you search the message for these qualities or ideas, your motivation increases,
as do your focus and attention on the message
 Attend with your Entire Body
• When a listener rummages (searches) through paperwork, glances through his or
her e-mail, or send text messages on a PDA while someone else is speaking, it
puts a damper (discouragement) on the other’s motivation to communicate
• Good listeners let the speaker know that they are attending with their
nonverbal cues, which include direct eye-contact, a body orientation that
directly faces the speaker, an alert posture, an engaged facial expressions
• Attentive nonverbal cues have the added advantage of continually focusing the
listener’s mind on the message
 Focus on Content Rather than Delivery
• Ones mostly dominated by images on movies, televisions, computers and cell phone
screens
• It is not surprising, then, what we turned off by more traditional message form
• Effective listeners are able to make a quick judgment about a speaker’s delivery or
the production qualities of a video, but they return their attention to the message
 Defer Judgment

• One of the most severe barriers to effective listening is the tendency to become
emotionally excited when a speaker’s view differ from our own
• Listeners should defer judgment until they have heard and properly understand
everything the speaker has to say
• Maintain emotional control, and get back to the task listening
 Take Advantage of Thought Speed
• Humans can think at a speed over 400 words per minute, most people speak approximately 125 words
a minute
• Leftover thinking time leads to four mental patterns, only one of which is indicative of good listening;
• Small mental departures - ability to rapidly process the information often leads to from the line of
conversation
• Tangent – the tendency to use extra thought time to focus exclusively on issues
• Private Argument – related to, but not directly connected with, the line of conversation
• Large Departures – represent letting one’s mind play extensively with thoughts that are only
minimally related to the conversation
 Listen for Meaning
• Listeners are often too focused on the words that speaker use
• However, the meaning of a message comes not only from the words but also from
the nonverbal cues such as vocal qualities, facial expressions, gesture, etc.
• Nonverbal cues comment on and help us interpret the words in the message
• For example, a simple response to a statement about whether people have a
problem with the new proposal may elicit a “No” reply that suggest there is no
problem, or “No” may be said in such a way that it clearly indicates a problem
 Probe with Open-Ended Questions
• To further your understanding of another person’s message
• The best way to help you assign meaning to and remember the person’s message
• Allow the message sender to fully explain the facts and feelings of a particular issues
• Questions can be developed by remembering the journalist’s mnemonic device, the
five W’s: who, what, when, where, why (and how)
 Take Notes
• Taking notes shows concern for what others have to say
• Experiments indicate that the behavioral involvement required for note taking
increases our attention to the message
• Note takers are better able to recall information than those who do not take
notes
 EMPHATIC LISTENING
• Involves an attitude of acceptance for what others have to say, especially
responding positively to emotions, and providing feedback that makes people feel
as if their concern have been addressed
i. Develop and attitude of acceptance
ii. Provide feedback
 Develop an Attitude of Acceptance
• Learning to probe behind people’s gut reactions – it means taking time to fully understand other
points of view
• Whenever we communicate, we do more than present content information; we also present our
individual experiences and emotions
• Experiences are usually communicated nonverbally, with only minimal awareness by the sender
• Thought patterns that works against empathic listening:
 Quick assumptions and inferences
 Simplistic evaluations
 Stereotyping at other’s appearance, thoughts or actions
 Provide Feedback
• Indicates acceptance of the other person
involved
• Listeners should provide responses that
confirm or reject others, rather than disconfirm
them.
• It includes:
i. Confirmation
ii. Rejection
iii. Disconfirmation
 A. Confirmation

• A response that does two things; i) it accepts the content level of the conversation, and ii)
it accepts the experience or emotion the person presents
• It contributes to a person’s feeling of self-worth
• Varieties of different confirming behaviors that indicate empathic listening:
i. Direct recognition
ii. Agreeing with content
iii. Endorsing emotions and feelings
 Confirmation
Definitions and Examples of Confirmation
Direct Recognition Nonverbal signals of interest, including looking
straight, frequent eye contact, head nods, etc.
Agreeing with content Verbal agreement with or praise for the content
communicated: “Yes, I think your assessment is
accurate. Proceed as you fit.”
Endorsing emotions and feelings Accepting the other’s feeling as reasonable and
legitimate: “I would fell the same way in your
position.” “You have every right to feel the way you
do.”
 B. Rejection

• By validating another person’s experience or emotional reactions but

disagree with the content of the message
• Acknowledges the validity of the emotions expressed but denies the content of
the communication, perhaps disagreeing with an assertion or suggesting an
alternative course of action
 Rejection
• Represents one of the most beneficial methods of framing and communicating
negative feedback
• Includes a three-part message process:
i. Direct recognition – indicate active listening
ii. Disagreement with content – signals disagreement with the message content
iii. Emotional or experiential qualifiers – indicates acceptance of the other person’s
feeling
 Rejection
Definitions and Examples of Rejection
Direct recognition Nonverbal signals of interest, including looking straight
at the speaker, eye contact, head nods, etc.

Disagreement with content Verbal disagreement with the content communicated: “I

think you are wrong about how that event held”

Emotional or experiential qualifiers Verbal or nonverbal signals of understanding or

acceptance for the feelings the other expresses: “You
should feel proud; you earned that promotion.”
 C. Disconfirmation
• Denies a person’s experiences or feelings, and, consequently, the other’s
feeling of self-worth
• It is devastating to a person’s view of self and destructive to productive
relationship
• Indicates lack of empathic listening because they disagree with the content
that another person expresses and the person’s emotional experience
 Disconfirmation
• It includes:
i. Avoiding involvement – these make a person feel that what he or she has to say is
unimportant
ii. Tangential or irrelevant remarks – not clearly connected to what the first person said and
indicate a failure to listen
iii. Imperviousness – indicates a lack of concern for or awareness of the other person’s
feelings
iv. Disqualification – occurs when someone criticizes a speaker’s feelings
 Disconfirmation
Definitions and Examples of Disconfirmation
Avoiding involvement Verbal or nonverbal distancing tactics, including avoiding
eye contact, turning away, walking away, etc.
Tangential or irrelevant remarks Verbal comments that are disconnected from or only
minimally connected to the first person’s remarks: “The
next agenda item is the conference.”
Imperviousness Discrediting others’ feelings: “You don’t feel that way”
(flat denial) or “You can’t possibly believe that.”
(challenging the right)
Disqualification Direct disparagement of a speaker: “That wasn’t a smart
thing to do.”
The End!