Nervous System

NAVEED AHMED KHAN

Nervous System
• The cells in the nervous system fall in two categories:
1. Glia
2. Neurons
• Glia are cells found throughout the nervous system that
provide structural support, nourishment and insulation for
neurons.
• Neurons are the communication links of the nervous system.
They receive, integrate and transmit information.
Structure of the Neuron
• Soma: It is the cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the
chemical machinery common to most cells. (Soma is a Greek word for
body).
• Dendrite: The parts of the neuron that are specialized to receive
information.
• Axon: It is a long thick fiber that transmits signals away from the soma
to other neurons, muscles or glands.
• Myelin Sheath: It is an insulating material, derived from glial cells,
that encases some axons.
• Synapse: It is a junction where information is transmitted from one
neuron to another. (Synapse is the Greek for junction).
• Information is received at the
dendrites, is passed through
the soma and along the
axon, and is transmitted to
the dendrites of other cells
at meeting points called
synapses.

• Neurons are the nervous

system’s input-output
devices.
Neurotransmitters
• The axon of the neuron ends in a cluster of terminal buttons,
which are small knobs and secrete chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
• These chemicals serve as the messengers that may activate
neighboring neurons.
• The point at which these neurons transmit chemicals is called
the synapse.
Neurotransmitters & Behavior
• They are fundamental to behavior, playing a key role in
everything from muscle movements to moods and mental
health.
• Specific neurotransmitters work at specific synapses hence
they are responsible for certain behaviors in humans.

• Acetylcholine (Ach): Activates motor neurons controlling

skeletal muscles.
• Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal and memory.
• Some Ach receptors are stimulated by nicotine.
• Dopamine (DA): Contributes in controlling the voluntary
movement, pleasurable emotions.
• Decreased level is associated with Parkinson’s disease.
• Over activity is associated with schizophrenia.
• Cocaine & amphetamines elevate its activity at the synapses.
• Serotonin: Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness,
eating, aggression.
• Abnormal levels may contribute to depression and OCD.
• Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits.
• Endorphins: Contributes to pain relief and perhaps to some
pleasurable emotions.
• Resembles opiate drugs in structure and effects.
What is Nervous System?
• The body’s speedy
electrochemical
communication network
consisting of the nerve cells of
the central and peripheral
nervous systems.
Divisions of Nervous System
Central Nervous System
• It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
• It is protected by the enclosing sheath called
the meninges (inflammation leads to
meningitis).
• The cerebrospinal fluid nourishes the brain and
provides a protective cushion for it.
• The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of
the body through the peripheral nervous
system.
• It is an extension of brain.
• Runs from the base of the brain to just below the
level of the waist.
• If damaged, it results in paralysis.
The Brain
• Enables human beings to talk, think,
remember, plan, create, and dream.
• Weighs three pounds and have billions of
interacting cells.
• It can be divided into hind brain, mid brain
and forebrain.
• Hind brain: It includes the cerebellum, the
medulla and the pons.
• Mid brain: It lies between the hind brain and
the fore brain. It is concerned with the
sensory processes like vision and hearing.
• Fore brain: it is the largest and the most
complex region of the brain. It includes the
thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and
cerebrum.
Brain Stem
• Medulla Oblongata: Responsible for the regulation of
the largely unconscious functions such as breathing and
circulation.
• Cerebellum: It coordinates the fine muscle movements
and keep a balance.
• Thalamus: It is a relay center for cortex. It handles
incoming and outgoing signals.
• Reticular Formation: Group of fibers that carry
stimulation related to sleep and arousal through brain
stem.
Limbic System
• The limbic system is a loosely connected network of
structures located roughly along the borders between the
cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas.
• Amygdala: Part of limbic system involved in emotions and
aggression.
• Hypothalamus: Responsible for regulating the basis
biological needs i.e. hunger, thirst, temperature control.
• Hippocampus: Part of limbic system involved in learning and
memory.
Cerebrum
• It is the largest and most complex part of the human brain.
• It includes the brain areas that are responsible for the most
complex mental activities like; learning, remembering,
thinking & consciousness.
• It is divided into two halves called hemispheres.
• Corpus Callosum is the structure that connects the two
hemispheres.
• Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four parts called
lobes i.e. occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, frontal
lobe.

Occipital Lobe
• At the back of the head.
• Includes the cortical area.
• It occupies most of the
visual signals and visual
functioning.
• Also called primary visual
cortex.
Parietal Lobe
• Located forward of the
occipital lobe.
• It occupies the area
related to sense of touch
and integrating visual
input.
• Also called the primary
somatosensory cortex.
Temporal Lobe
• Lies below the parietal
lobe.
• It occupies the area
related to auditory
processing.
• Also called primary
auditory cortex.
Frontal Lobe
• On the front of the head.
• Largest lobe.
• It occupies the area that controls the
movement of the muscles.
• Also called the primary motor cortex.
• The front part of the lobe is prefrontal cortex.
• Contains 28% of the cerebral cortex.
• Controls memory or higher order functions.
• Damaged prefrontal cortex results in deficits in
planning, attention and getting organized.
Peripheral Nervous System
• It is made up of those nerves that lie outside the brain and
spinal cord.
• The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the
organs, limbs, and skin.
• It is divided into Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System.
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
• In-charge in controlling the
voluntary muscles.
• Activated when we are moving or
in motion.
• Like, walking, swimming, running
etc.
• Afferent Nerves: to CNS from body.
(Sensory Nerves)
• Efferent Nerves: from CNS to body.
(Motor Nerves)
Autonomic Nervous System
• In-charge in activating the
involuntary systems.
• Involuntarily, automatically
activated without a person’s
conscious control.
• Like, eye blinking, heartbeat etc.
• Walter Cannon: fight or flight
response (cats)
Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic
• Conserves body resources.
• Activates processes that allow body
to save and store energy.
• For example, slow heart rate, low
blood pressure etc.
Sympathetic
• Mobilizes the body’s resources for
emergencies.
• Creates fight or flight response
• When activated, inhibits digestive
system, drains blood from
periphery.
• Sympathetic nerves send signals to
adrenal glands.
• Releasing hormones to make the
body ready for exertion.
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.

Stimulus
Recognition
“DANGER”..
Decision to Act
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.

Stimulus
Recognition
“DANGER”..
Decision to Act
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.

Stimulus
Recognition
“DANGER”..
Decision to Act
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.

Stimulus
Recognition
“DANGER”..
Decision to Act
You are speed
driving a car, when
somebody
suddenly crosses
your way.

Stimulus
Recognition
“DANGER”..
Decision to Act
Case Study
• Read the following scenario and indicate which part of the
nervous system is involved in displaying the particular
behavior? Name the responses being indicated in this
scenario.

Fire catches up on a building and every individual starts

running out of the building to save their lives. While people
are running out, one man rushed inside the building to save
his eight years old daughter.
Rubrics
• The part of the brain involved in these responses is the
sympathetic nervous system. It is a further division of
autonomic nervous system. The rationale to this is because
sympathetic nervous system works in the emergencies
situations and in the scenario there is an emergency
situation.
• These scenarios show the fight and flight response. The
people coming out of the building display flight response,
whereas the man going inside the building to save his
daughter displays fight response.
CONTINUED…….
The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two
Brains or One?
• The brain is divided into left and right halves, or
hemispheres, each of which generally controls the opposite
side of the body.

• Each hemisphere can be thought of as being specialized in

the functions it carries out: The left specializes verbal tasks,
such as logical reasoning, speaking and reading; the right
specializes in nonverbal tasks, such as spatial perception,
pattern recognition and emotional expression.
Tests
• Mapping of brain functions through technology.
• Used by neuroscientists
EEG: The electroencephalograph
• The recording electrodes are
attached to the surface of the
scalp which permit the EEG to
record electrical activity in the
cortex over time.
• Output is in the form of line
tracings called brain waves.
• Brain waves vary in frequency
(cycles per second) and
(measured in voltage)
amplitude.
CT: Computerized Tomography
• A computer enhanced x-ray of brain structure.
• Multiple x-rays are shot from many angles and computer combines
the readings to form a vivid image of the horizontal slice of brain.
• Entire brain can be visualized by assembling the slices.
• Least expensive, widely used.
• Detect abnormalities like schizophrenia.
MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• This scan uses magnetic fields, radio waves and computerized
enhancement to map out brain structure.
• Produces three dimensional pictures of brain that have high
resolution.
• Provided useful insights about depression: shrinkage of hippocampus
• fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging
• Monitors blood flow and oxygen consumption in brain
PET: Positron Emission Tomography
• It can examine brain functions, mapping, actual activity in the brain.
• Radioactively tagged chemicals are introduced into the brain.
• They provide color coded maps that shows areas of high activity in
the brain overtime.
• For example, it shows which areas of brain becomes active when we
make a fist, when we speak etc.
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemical into
the blood stream that help control bodily functioning.
• The messengers in this communication network are called Hormones.
• Hormones are the chemical substances released by endocrine glands.
• Endocrine glands-----Hormones------Blood stream------cells
• Difference between neurotransmitters and hormones.
Endocrine Glands
• Pituitary: Master gland, releases hormones to stimulate
actions in other glands. Present at the base of forebrain.
Receives power from hypothalamus. For example, oxytocin
(trust, empathy, trigger contractions).

• Thyroid: Present in the neck. For example, thyroxine

(metabolic rate, heart, digestive function, muscle control,
mood, bone maintenance) Good supply of iodine.
THANKYOU…….